Chapter 2
Effects of domestic and family violence
2.1
Our Watch described domestic and family violence as having 'rippling
effects':
It impacts on individuals and relationships as well as on
organisations, communities and the broader society.[1]
2.2
The National Council to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children
(National Council), in its 2009 Background paper to the National Plan, also
described the broad-ranging effects of domestic and family violence:
This violence damages the health and wellbeing of women and
their children. It also affects communities, disrupting community and
intra-familial relationships, isolating people from social networks,
encouraging negative norms and perpetuating social exclusion. Violence also
places a large burden on the national economy through the cost of health,
support and justice services and the loss of human capital.[2]
2.3
This section of the report discusses the health and financial
consequences of domestic and family violence for victims, including children, as
well as the economic and social impacts on the broader Australian community.
Effects on health
2.4
A number of submissions referred to the findings of a 2004 study by
VicHealth which assessed the health impacts of 'intimate partner violence' on
women:
[I]ntimate partner violence is all too common, has severe and
persistent effects on women's physical and mental health and carries with it an
enormous cost in terms of premature death and disability. Indeed it is
responsible for more preventable ill-health and premature death in Victorian
women under the age of 45 than any other of the well-known risk factors,
including high blood pressure, obesity and smoking.[3]
2.5
The Australian Women's Health Network detailed the health impacts of
'gender-based violence' on women:
The direct health consequences...include depression, anxiety
and phobias, suicidal behaviours, physical injury, a range of somatic disorders
and a variety of reproductive health problems. Women who have been exposed to
violence report poorer overall physical health than those who have not, and
there is evidence that the health impact of violence can persist long after the
abuse has stopped.[4]
2.6
The National Council noted Australian studies showing that 'women who
have experienced partner violence have poorer health and use health services
more frequently than other women, even after they are no longer exposed to the
violence'.[5]
However:
...studies show that health improvements are possible –
particularly when women are no longer exposed to the violence, have received
appropriate medical and emotional counselling support and have suitable social
supports in place.[6]
2.7
In terms of specific health consequences, a number of submissions
commented on the psychological impacts of domestic and family violence. For
example, Women's Centre for Health Matters provided the following statistics on
the mental health impacts of domestic and family violence:
Access Economics estimates that in Australia, nearly 18% of
all depression experienced by women and 17% of all anxiety disorders
experienced by women are related to domestic and family violence. Other known
mental health impacts of domestic and family violence include post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), problematic substance use, and other stress- and
trauma-related disorders. Women who have experienced domestic or family
violence are at much greater risk of attempting suicide than women who have
not.[7]
2.8
The National Council described the 'cumulative impact' on the mental
health of victims:
Many women describe the long-term psychological impacts of
emotional, verbal, social and economic abuse as being more devastating. Women
who have experienced partner violence are also more likely to suffer mental
health issues including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety,
self-harm tendencies and suicidal thoughts.[8]
2.9
Similarly, Women with Disabilities Victoria emphasised the long-term
psychological impacts of domestic and family violence:
Long periods of anxiety, insecurity, low self-esteem, social
isolation and lack of control over home life result from domestic violence.
Psychological impacts on children are compounded by disrupted education and
parental relationships. Such psychosocial risks accumulate during life and
increase the chances of poor mental health and premature death.[9]
2.10
The Domestic Violence Prevention Council (ACT) referred to the trauma
suffered by domestic and family violence victims:
Women and their children are often forced to leave their
homes to escape domestic and family violence, and can experience extensive
trauma – they are physically, emotionally and psychologically affected by not
only the loss of their homes but also disruption to their social connections,
and their children's schooling and friendships.[10]
2.11
Submissions also referred to the impact of domestic and family violence
on reproductive and sexual health.[11]
Children by Choice outlined the negative sexual and reproductive health
consequences for women who are victims of intimate partner violence, including
unintended and unwanted pregnancy, abortion and unsafe abortion, and pregnancy
complications.[12]
2.12
Children by Choice observed that where reproductive coercion[13]
leads to a pregnancy unwanted by the female partner, then there may be either
pressure to carry the pregnancy to full term, or prevention from accessing
abortion.[14]
The submission states:
Continuing a pregnancy to become 'co-parents' can further
entrench a connection between the woman and the perpetrator, which may continue
regardless of the context of the relationship itself and can become a tool for
further manipulation through family court proceedings.[15]
2.13
The joint submission of Inner Melbourne Community Legal and the Royal
Women's Hospital noted that pregnancy is a particularly high risk time for
women:
...research shows that violence significantly impacts pregnant
women. Studies have found between 4-9% of pregnant women are abused during
their pregnancy and/or after the birth. In a study conducted of 399
pregnant women at the [Royal Women's Hospital], it was found that 20% of the
women surveyed did experience and continued to experience violence during their
pregnancy. A survey conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics shows that
20% of women who experienced violence by a previous partner during the relationship
stated that the onset of violence occurred during pregnancy.[16]
Impacts on Children
2.14
In its submission, Victoria Police commented specifically on the number
of children exposed to domestic and family violence:
Nationally, 1 in 4 children are exposed to family violence.
The impacts are seen across our health systems, social support services, child
wellbeing and development, and most devastatingly, in our homicide statistics.[17]
2.15
The submission from Victoria Police noted the children do not need to be
present when the violence occurs in order to suffer negative consequences:
Victoria Police data show that in approximately a third of
family incidents reported to police children have been present, however,
children do not need to be physically present when violence occurs to suffer
negative consequences. Living in an environment where violence is the norm is
extremely damaging, and whether or not they 'see' the violence is not critical.[18]
2.16
Save the Children provided the following information on the presence of
children at domestic and family violence incidents:
The Queensland Domestic Violence Taskforce estimated that
children were present at 80-85 per cent of domestic violence incidents, and
that in 50 per cent of these cases, the child was also injured during
the incident. This can have far reaching consequences given a developing brain
is most vulnerable to the impact of traumatic experiences during childhood;
exposure to extreme trauma will change the organisation of the brain, resulting
in difficulties in dealing with stresses later in life.[19]
2.17
Save the Children stated that the impact of domestic and family violence
on children is underestimated and largely misunderstood:
Domestic violence can have profound negative impacts on
children, including psychological and behavioural impacts (e.g. depression,
substance abuse, school difficulties), health and socio-economic impacts (e.g.
domestic violence continues to be the leading cause of homelessness for
children) and the intergenerational transmission of violence (e.g. 'children's
exposure to domestic violence may result in attitudes that justify their own
use of violence and boys who witness violence are more likely to approve of
violence').[20]
2.18
Other submissions also highlighted the issue of the intergenerational
transmission of violence. For example, the Australian Women's Health Network
referred to work by VicHealth indicating that boys who witness domestic and
family violence are at a greater risk of becoming perpetrators as adults.[21]
2.19
Similarly, Victoria Police commented on the factors that make it more
likely children will become perpetrators of violence themselves:
Children and young people may also be perpetrators of
violence and this can be largely due to issues such as being a previous victim
of family violence or having witnessed violence in their home, mental health
issues, bullying or alcohol and drug abuse.[22]
Financial impacts
2.20
The effect of domestic and family violence on a victim's financial
security, particularly in terms of maintaining employment and having access to suitable
accommodation, were highlighted by witnesses and in submissions. The Domestic
Violence Resource Centre Victoria (DVRCV) described financial security as a
'major issue' for women living with abusive partners and after they leave the
relationship. DVRCV referred to research which found:
[T]he experience of domestic violence significantly
contributes to poverty, financial risk and financial insecurity for women,
sometimes long after they have left the relationship.[23]
2.21
The submission by WIRE Women's Information focused specifically on
financial abuse and its impact on women trying to leave abusive relationships:
A woman leaving a financially abusive relationship is likely
to have few financial resources; in many cases, she will have debts accrued by
her ex-partner and face immediate difficulties finding and maintaining secure
accommodation and providing the basic essentials for herself and her
children...if she has been prevented from working or studying during her relationship,
it may be difficult to find work, as she may lack qualifications and experience
– or the qualifications and experience she does have may no longer be relevant.
Importantly, women in this situation often have little experience of managing
their finances and limited knowledge of their financial position within the
relationship.[24]
2.22
WIRE Women's Information also outlined some long term financial
implications for women leaving situations of domestic and family violence:
Women with a history of domestic violence can be reluctant to
pursue their financial entitlements through the legal system post-separation
for a variety of reasons: they may be fearful of their former partner and
choose safety over property; they may lack confidence; feel they do not have
the necessary skills; be daunted by the costs involved in legal proceedings and
they may be unaware of their financial entitlements under the law. Women who
have experienced family violence, including financial abuse, are more likely to
do poorly in financial settlements compared with those who have not...These
factors can result in a lifetime of financial hardship for many women and their
children.[25]
2.23
Ms Patricia Kinnersly, of the Women's Health Association of Victoria,
spoke of 'hearing stories about women who were managing just to keep it
together', and gave the following example:
Recently I spoke with a woman who came into our service who
was working two part-time jobs, low-paid jobs, and doing a [certificate IV
qualification], so that she could put herself in a better position into the
future. She had one child and was paying rent. The loss of one of her jobs...had
reduced her income by $60 or $70 a fortnight. It was putting her bang into that
stress and she was starting to consider whether she would bring somebody else
into the house to rent, and she was worried about that because she is a single
woman with a child, or would she have to do something like move home to her
parents and then she would not be able to do the jobs that she was currently
doing. Whilst there are some notions of what poor people do and do not do,
there is this point where they are just managing and so even that $50, $60 or
what have you just tips them into that red zone and makes them more vulnerable.[26]
2.24
Ms Rosie Batty, who was named the 2015 Australian of the Year for her
work as a family violence campaigner following the murder of her son, Luke, at
the hands of her ex-partner, explained the financial pressure that a person may
find themselves under once they have left a violent relationship:
[Y]ou are really struggling as single parents a lot of the
time and that places pressure on both parties because, when you do separate,
your financial position is always weakened. Again, there is that other form of
abuse that can then encroach where [your ex-partner] does not pay. You are
bringing up children on your own and you are compromised financially. You are
under pressure by Centrelink to go and get a job. We are hearing about job
snobs from the government in that perspective, when really we do not have
family-friendly jobs out there.[27]
2.25
The Commonwealth Government already has two programs in place to help
address the financial issues experienced by women and those in low income
families. The Women’s Money Toolkit is a free online resource to provide women,
including those dealing with family breakdown, with financial advice and
support.[28]
Additionally, $63.4 million has been committed to fund three microfinance
schemes to help low income individuals and families gain greater control of
their finances.[29]
Other levels of government also provide support of this nature. The New South
Wales Government’s Start Safely subsidy is just one example.[30]
Employment issues
2.26
The importance of being employed, as a means of a victim of domestic and
family violence ensuring their financial security, was highlighted to the
committee.[31]
Ms Veronica Black, National Coordinator Organising and Development,
Finance Sector Union of Australia (FSU), referred to the complexity of the
interaction between domestic and family violence, and a victim's employment:
It is incredibly important for women to be able to maintain
their economic independence in order to give them the best chance of being able
to escape from a violent situation, but at the same time experiencing domestic
violence increases your chances of having difficulties at work that come about
as a result of absenteeism, excessive sick leave, impact on performance and so
on that might be occurring at the time that you are experiencing that violence.
As well as that, while the workplace can be an important source of information
and support that victims of domestic violence may not be able to access in
other places, it can also be a place that is unsafe because even if you have
left the home, if you are still in the same workplace and your partner or
ex-partner knows where that workplace is, then sometimes that violence can be
brought into the workplace either physically or through ongoing stalking and
harassment at work.[32]
2.27
Ms Jodie Woodrow, of RiSE Queensland, shared with the committee how domestic
and family violence affected her employment:
I had to stay on welfare
because of the number of occasions I had to go to court. If you expect a woman
to make an application to go through court and go through 12 mentions before
she even gets to trial—in my case, it was four years, two Family Court report
writers and multiple appointments—you cannot expect her to work at the same
time. So we have to question [how] we expect women to be employed and deal with
crises at the same time. In my case, my perpetrator would sabotage my attempts
to go to work. He would slash my tyres. He would let down the air in my tyres.
He would throw away the car keys. My boss got pretty sick and tired of me
ringing up and saying I can't come in, so I had to leave my job. I ended up on
welfare because of that.[33]
2.28
The ACTU's submission noted the inclusion of a domestic violence leave
entitlement in enterprise agreements is assisting some victims to maintain
their employment:
Paid domestic violence leave is designed to assist victims of
domestic violence to remain in paid employment, support them through the
process of escaping violence and to promote safe and secure workplaces for them
and their work colleagues. The leave is based on an employee[']s need, for
example, to attend court appearances and related appointments, seek legal
advice, and make re-location arrangements.
Paid domestic violence leave recognises that it is largely
women, who, as a result of the violence, have broken employment histories, are
in low paid jobs and can least afford to take unpaid leave at a time where
financial security is critical.[34]
2.29
Ms Veronica Black, FSU, provided the committee with two examples of workers
accessing domestic and family violence leave which enabled them to maintain
their employment while they were dealing with violent incidents:
We had a member from the National Australia Bank contact us
to say that she could not go to work. She had had a very violent incident with
her ex-partner. She had an [apprehended violence order] out against him. He had
taken off with the car and she needed to move—and she needed to move
straightaway and therefore would not be able to attend work. We were able to
talk to her about the fact that there was a new enterprise agreement that had
provisions for access to leave and how to go about accessing that leave. She
then sent through the relevant information to the bank and the bank came back
and said, 'You should take the time that you need in order to relocate and to
make sure that you and your family are safe.'...
A member with the Westpac group was in contact with an
advocate...and said: 'I need to resign. How much notice do I need to give. Can
you assist me to not work out my notice?' When we started talking to her about
what was happening, we learned that her ex-partner had continued to be so
violent that the police had been patrolling her street on a regular basis. It
had got to the point where they said: 'We just cannot guarantee your safety
anymore. We recommend that you move. Do not tell anyone that you are moving.
You need to move interstate. Do not tell your kids in case he shows up at the
school and they mention it to him.' She was trying to pack at night, once the
kids were asleep, in a way that hid the boxes and things so that the children
would not see that anything was going was on. She thought her only choice was
to resign and that she would not be able to give any notice. But, after we
spoke to her about the work we had been doing with Westpac and the policies
that had been implemented within that organisation, we spoke to Westpac on her
behalf. They have granted her a month's leave to relocate and they have also
said that they would do anything within their power to find another position
for her near to where she ends up, wherever that might be. They showed a great
understanding of the fact that they will probably not know that until the last
possible minute.[35]
Committee view
2.30
The committee supports the need for victims of domestic and family
violence to be able to access appropriate leave provisions which assist them to
maintain employment and financial security while attending necessary
appointments such as court appearances and seeking legal advice.
Recommendation 1
2.31
The committee supports victims of domestic and family violence having access to
appropriate leave provisions which assist them to maintain employment and
financial security while attending necessary appointments such as court
appearances and seeking legal advice. The Commonwealth Government should
investigate ways to implement this across the private and public sector.
Homelessness
2.32
The likelihood of domestic and family violence leading to homelessness
was emphasised by a number of submissions. For example, Australian Women
Against Violence Alliance, stated:
Domestic Violence is the single biggest driver of
homelessness for Australian women. According to Homelessness Australia 55 per
cent of female clients and 25 per cent of all clients who present to specialist
homeless services cite domestic violence as their reason for leaving their
home. For women, the intersection between domestic violence and homelessness is
influenced by a range of factors. Women's prolonged experiences of intimate
partner violence, which is largely perpetrated within the home, "erodes
the sense of safety and sanctuary that underscores the concept of home life and
when women choose to leave a situation of violence, this primarily comes at the
heavy price of them having to leave their homes." In addition to this,
there is a lack of adequate and affordable housing throughout Australia. This
is resulting in increased rates of housing stress as well as increased homelessness
amongst women, who are disadvantaged by gender inequalities in employment and
income.[36]
2.33
Our Watch referred to data collected by the Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare from specialist homelessness services for 2011-12:
-
One-third of clients had
experienced domestic or family violence.
-
The majority of these (78 per
cent) were female and one-fifth were less than 10 years of age.
-
Over four times as many females as
males reported domestic and family violence as the reason for seeking assistance.
-
Of the female clients reporting
domestic and family violence as a main reason, 63 per cent were aged between 18
and 44.[37]
2.34
The National Council described homelessness caused by domestic and
family violence as different from other forms of homelessness:
In many cases, the perpetrator remains in the home and many
women will cycle in and out of homelessness as they return to the perpetrator
and the family home, often because of financial constraints and limited crisis
services.[38]
2.35
Ms Mirjana Wilson, Executive Director, Domestic Violence Crisis Service,
told the committee that even where a victim remains in their own home, the financial
stress of mortgage repayments and running a household may still lead them to
homelessness.[39]
Homelessness is discussed further in Chapter 10.
Impacts on male victims
2.36
While much of the evidence was focused on the impact of domestic and
family violence on female victims, the committee did receive some evidence in
relation to the impacts on male victims.
2.37
The One in Three Campaign quoted from the findings of a study conducted
in 2010 by researchers at the Psychology Department of Edith Cowan University:
The data suggest[s] that male victims of intimate partner
abuse and their children suffer a range of consequences, such as psychological
distress (including psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety
disorders), suicidal ideation, impaired self-concept (in particular around
one's sense of masculinity), and loss of work.[40]
2.38
The researchers noted that despite these impacts, men were reluctant to
disclose the abuse or seek help:
The reasons for this are complex. The major factors appear to
be men's denial of what is happening; their fear that they will not be
believed, and their fear that even if they are believed they will not be assisted
or will be blamed for the abuse. Participants believed that men would find it
easier to seek help and disclose the abuse if there were greater public
acknowledgement that males can also be victims of abuse, if there were
appropriate services for men, and if they were confident that they will be
given effective help.[41]
2.39
Dr Elizabeth Celi also described to the committee some of the impacts on
male victims of domestic and family violence:
[T]here is a lot of shame in this issue and a lot of
embarrassment already that they are in this position, and they have not
received public education that certain psychologically abusive behaviours by
their female partner—or even by other men in their lives—are actually abnormal
and unproductive, and can have an effect on their mental and emotional health.
Not having that information, they do not have a gauge of what is normal and
when it becomes abnormal and unproductive. So it will take a while for men to
actually feel competent to report their experience.
The other factor we need to consider is the social health
aspects for men, where people disbelieve or invalidate their experience. That
is a form of re-victimisation. For someone who is already receiving mental and
emotional abuse, social abuse or financial abuse, it is a very insidious and
difficult-to-gauge thing. To then be disbelieved, or invalidated or told to
'suck it up' et cetera further inhibits their ability to report it. So it is
easier actually to deal with it by yourself.[42]
Economic impacts on the community
2.40
A 2009 study by KPMG, commissioned by the Commonwealth, states that violence
against women, including domestic and family violence, cost the nation $13.6
billion each year.[43]
This figure was expected to reach $15.6 billion in 2021-22, if extra steps were
not taken.[44]
2.41
Ms Veronica Black, of the FSU, provided the following evidence on the
cost of domestic and family violence in the workplace:
Some research conducted by RMIT for the domestic violence
clearinghouse project estimates that it cost around $1.5 billion per annum to
Australian employers in staff turnover, absenteeism, lower productivity and so [on]
in the workplace.[45]
2.42
Australian Women's Health Network described as 'enormous' the financial
cost to the community of violence against women:
This takes into account the cost of public and private
services to victims, perpetrators and children, the costs in terms of lost
productivity (including sick leave, 'presenteeism', access to employment
support services, replacing staff and lost unpaid work)...Other costs include
counselling, changing schools, child protection services, increased use of
government services, and juvenile and adult crime[.][46]
Conclusion
2.43
The many areas outlined above highlight the high cost of domestic and
family violence not only to the individuals involved and their children but
also the wider community and economy. In later chapters of this report the
committee discusses measures to prevent these impacts and interventions to
lessen impacts on victims.
Navigation: Previous Page | Contents | Next Page