CHAPTER 11 - CROCODILES
History
11.1 There are 22 species of crocodiles world-wide, two of which are endemic to Australia: the
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater or Johnston's River crocodile
(Crocodylus johnstoni). [1] Saltwater crocodiles occur in estuarine mangrove habitats along the
northern Australian coastline and extend into most northern coastal rivers and swamps. It is thought that
the original population, prior to post-war hunting, was somewhere between 60,000 and 80,000 animals.
[2] Freshwater crocodiles occur primarily in the northern rivers systems.
11.2 After the Second World War, the crocodile skin trade expanded dramatically and by the late
1960s populations of both species of crocodiles were seriously depleted. [3] The reasons for this are
now clear:
- the species was considered to be vermin and had no value to landholders;
- in the post-war period, the importance of retaining populations of crocodiles was not recognised;
- crocodiles mostly inhabited areas of free legal access (ie. Crown land); and
- there was no monitoring of harvesting impact and no management plans for the species or its
habitat. [4]
11.3 Following concern by conservationists, [5] and from the hunters themselves, [6] crocodiles were
given full protection under state legislation (in 1962 in Western Australia, 1964 in Northern Territory,
and 1974 in Queensland). [7] Protection of both species allowed for a substantial recovery in numbers
and now both species are listed under Appendix II of CITES which allows for limited trade under strict
supervision. While each state and territory is responsible for the management of its wildlife, all export
programs involving the use of crocodiles must be approved by the Federal Government under the
Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982.
11.4 Crocodile farming began in 1972 with the establishment by the Federal Government of an
enterprise situated at the Edward River Aboriginal Community in north Queensland. The project aimed
to provide employment for Aboriginal people in remote areas, and initially hunters were paid for small
saltwater crocodiles which were not protected in Queensland at that time. In terms of creating
employment, the scheme was successful. However, during the period it operated under the auspices of
the Government, it was not financially viable. It is now managed successfully as an independent
enterprise which specialises in breeding and hatching. The breeding area comprises a large, fenced
lagoon which contains about 140 nests. Hatchlings are grown out to about 60 cm and are then
transferred to a farm near Cairns which is closer to a more economic source of food. [8]
11.5 By 1991, there were 14 crocodile breeding enterprises in Australia holding some 30,000 saltwater
and 19,000 freshwater crocodiles. In 1989-90, the value of the crocodile industry was estimated to be
about $1.5m. [9] By 1997, there were 17 licensed crocodile farms or ranching operations, seven in
Queensland, eight in the Northern Territory, and two in Western Australia, with a total number of
crocodiles held at about 50,000. [10] The industry in Australia currently generates about $3m per
annum in sales of meat and skins. World-wide, the industry is worth about $US200 million per annum.
[11]
11.6 Crocodiles are valued primarily for their skins. Meat is a secondary, although increasing product.
The industry is capital intensive, long-term and export oriented, and is currently expanding. There are
three tanneries which process crocodile skins, four abattoirs accredited for processing meat and
numerous leather goods manufacturers. There is a small industry based on the use of crocodile parts
(skulls and teeth) which produces souvenirs for the tourist trade including small, taxidermically prepared
whole animals. [12]
11.7 There are two methods by which young crocodiles can be obtained. One method is to take adult
stock and to breed from them in a contained environment (captive breeding). Often original breeding
stock are sourced from nuisance crocodiles which have been removed from public areas for safety
reasons and which have subsequently been held in captivity. [13] This method is termed 'farming' under
the CITES definition that all animals have been bred in captivity. An alternative method is to remove
eggs, or juveniles, from the wild and to incubate, or rear, them in captivity. Termed ranching, this method
is considered to have a number of benefits over farming. Both captive breeding and ranching are allowed
in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. In Queensland, however, ranching is prohibited.
Ranching
11.8 In ranching operations, eggs are annually taken from the wild on a sustainable basis and grown out
on farms. A small percentage may be later returned to the wild. Removal is carried out under licence and
is part of an overall management program drawn up for each crocodile species in each state. Ranching
has the advantage that infrastructure costs are lower because breeding pens do not have to be
constructed and large breeding stock do not have to be maintained. In addition, fertility in the wild is
higher than in captivity.
11.9 Crocodiles in the wild have a high level of fecundity, but also a high level of mortality at both egg
and hatchling stages (90-95%). [14] Ranching allows the removal of eggs or hatchlings which would
otherwise have a very low chance of survival. Once taken from the wild, there is a hatch rate of about
70-80% and about the same rate of subsequent survival. This means that after a three-year grow-out
period, about 26 young remain from an original clutch of 50 eggs. [15] In 1996 in the Northern
Territory, 20-25,000 eggs were taken in this way. There are both financial benefits to this and
conservation benefits for the species. [16] The economic incentives take the form of a royalty paid to
land owners at a set value for each fertile egg collected from their property. The current royalty is
$10.00 per fertile egg and an average nest contains 45-50 eggs. [17]
11.10 Ranching is a specialised task and requires skilled, licensed operators. Eggs need to be removed
from the nest just after laying or just prior to hatching and transported under stable conditions back to an
incubator. [18] In some areas the eggs are very close to habitation and can be collected cheaply. In
other areas, such as Maningrida and Arafura Swamp, the nests are a long way away and the eggs are
expensive to obtain. [19] However, while ranching appears to have been very successful, 'reverse'
ranching, the release of hatchlings or juvenile crocodiles back into their natural habitat, to be recollected
at a later date, appears not to work, primarily for the reason that their survival rate in the wild is very
low. [20]
11.11 The major economic benefits of ranching are the growth of a controlled and promising export
industry and the provision of income to landholders and Aboriginal communities through the sale of
crocodile eggs to farms. Other benefits include the enhancement of public education and the promotion
of scientific research on demography, biology and habitat requirements. [21]
Skins
11.12 Raising crocodiles takes three to four years, by which time saltwater crocodiles have reached
about 1.5 metres in length and freshwater crocodiles about 1.2 metres. Crocodile skin is highly regarded
as a leather and saltwater crocodile skins are more valuable than freshwater, primarily because the
osteoderms (small bones) in the belly scutes make skins from the latter more difficult to tan. In 1990, the
world trade in quality saltwater crocodile skins was estimated to be about 150,000 per annum.
Competition in the skin trade comes primarily from crocodiles and alligators produced in Papua New
Guinea, Africa, Asia (Indonesia and Thailand) and North America. Under CITES regulations, all skins
must be tagged giving details of country of origin, year of skinning and an individual number.
11.13 Currently all Australian crocodile producers send their skins off-shore for tanning. Most are then
returned for subsequent manufacture into designer products such as belts, shoes, handbags, wallets and
briefcases. In the past, leather processing facilities were mainly located in Europe, but over the last
decade processing and trade has shifted to the Asia region. Both the Queensland Crocodile Industry
Group and Hartley's Creek Crocodile Farm lamented the fact that Australia lacked an internationally
competitive, quality tannery with the expertise and desire to process crocodile skins to a high grade
finish. [22] A salted crocodile skin has a basic value of about $275, a price established by the
international market. After tanning the value increases to about $600. As a finished product, or a series
of finished products, it is worth about $1500. [23]
Meat
11.14 Small but increasing quantities of crocodile meat are being produced for the domestic market.
Stimulated by the trend towards gourmet and game foods particularly in the tourist industry, crocodile
meat can now be purchased throughout Australia. At three years of age, the meat value of a crocodile is
about $75 - $100. While a young crocodile carries only about five kilos of quality meat, it is worth about
$20 per kilo. [24] Currently the demand for crocodile meat is much greater than supply and Australia
imports about 80 tonnes of meat per annum. [25]
Northern Territory
11.15 Commercial use of saltwater crocodiles began in 1980 in the Northern Territory with captive
breeding programs using problem animals that had been brought in from the wild. Ranching was
permitted in 1983, and the exportation of skins began in 1987. There are now eight crocodile farms in
Northern Territory, two of which also have tourist facilities. The other six depend either on ranching
alone, or on a combination of ranching and captive-breeding for income. [26]
11.16 The Northern Territory Government has a comprehensive Management Program for freshwater
and saltwater crocodiles which is administered by the Parks and Wildlife Commission. The Plan was
developed in conjunction with the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1993 and the
Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982, and its aim is to 'enhance the
current and long-term conservation of wild crocodiles and their habitats through a commercial ranching
program and other sustainable use initiatives'.
11.17 The current program of ranching and commercial use of crocodiles developed from a trial
program carried out between 1984 and 1989 which allowed some commercial use in geographically
restricted areas, accompanied by close monitoring and assessment. The intent of the Management Plan
was to 'establish a commercial value for crocodiles and to make crocodiles and their habitat assets to
landholders rather than a liability'. [27] In doing this, the Government recognised that the conservation of
crocodiles on private lands, including land owned by Aboriginal people, depended on the maintenance
of suitable wetland habitat in the face of competing forms of land use.
11.18 According to the Management Plan, the trial program showed that:
- the size of the wild population was not compromised by the harvest program;
- the program enhanced the value of crocodile conservation in the eyes of the community;
- a small but promising export industry was established for the industry; and
- a responsible means of realising a commercial value from wild crocodiles was developed. [28]
11.19 The crocodile industry in the Northern Territory is based on a permit system and all operators
must be licensed. The selection of harvest areas is determined on the basis of the interest and
commitment of the relevant landholders, the availability of resources and the predicted capacity of the
area to sustain regular harvests.
11.20 The Plan makes the following provisions for harvesting freshwater crocodiles (C. johnstoni):
- eggs may be collected between July and November and incubated under artificial conditions;
- hatchlings (less than 0.25 m) may be collected in November and December; and
- juveniles (0.25 to 1.5 m) and adults (greater than 1.5 m) may be collected at any time but in areas
where sexual maturity is reached below 1.5 m, size limits will be set accordingly.
11.21 Trial harvests of saltwater crocodiles (C porosus) are to be introduced during the life of the
current Management Plan.
11.22 The Plan provides for the annual monitoring and assessment of crocodile populations, and for the
refinement of monitoring methods over the life of the Plan. Harvest limits are set by the Director of Parks
and Wildlife having due regard to the results of monitoring and assessment and should these indicate that
management aims and objectives are not being met, feedback mechanisms are included in the plan. [29]
Harvests set by the plan for the first year of its operation are given in Table 11.1.
| Crocodylus johnstoni | |
|---|
| Viable eggs | 4,000 |
| Hatchlings | 6,000 |
| Juveniles | 1,000 |
| Adults | 200 |
| |
| Crocodylus porosus | |
| Viable eggs | 15,000 |
| Hatchlings | 500 |
| Juveniles | 500 |
| Adults | 400 |
Table 11.1 - NT harvest quotas for freshwater and saltwater crocodiles for 1997. (Source: A
Management Program for Crocodylus porosus & Crocodylus johnstoni in the Northern Territory of
Australia November 1996 Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory, p. 11.)
11.23 The Northern Territory Environmental Defender's Office argued in evidence to the Committee
that clients had expressed concerns about the crocodile management program. In summary, these
concerns related to the lack of involvement of the public in the formulation of the Management Plan; the
lack of scientific information available to the public to support decisions made in the management
program; and a lack of involvement of the public in monitoring and assessment of species subject to
commercial use. [30]
11.24 However, those concerns were not shared by eminent crocodile biologist Dr Grahame Webb of
Wildlife Management International. In his submission to the Committee, Dr Webb gave detailed
information on the demography of saltwater crocodiles (C. porosus) since protection was first
implemented. His data showed that since commercialisation began, wild populations had continued to
expand. He noted that there were 'refined monitoring programs for the wild population, strict regulations,
a system whereby landowners are paid for the eggs taken from their land ("ownership"), very strict
export controls, very strict import controls in most countries, and the ability to alter the pattern and
extent of use if the monitoring results indicate that it is desirable'. Dr Webb concluded:
The NT is often projected as having been bold and risky with its crocodile management program, but in
reality the opposite is the case. The NT has embarked on an incredibly conservative form of utilisation,
well below Maximum Sustainable Yield. [31]
11.25 The crocodile industry has become a significant contributor to the economy of the Northern
Territory. According to Mr John Lever of the Queensland Crocodile Industry Group, the Northern
Territory is now the leader in crocodile skin production. [32] The submission by the Northern Territory
government estimated that the industry generated over $3 million from meat and skins in 1995. Greater
than this are the benefits from tourism. While a total figure is not known, crocodile cruises along the
Adelaide River alone are worth $2 million and each year over 100,000 people visit the Darwin
Crocodile Farm and Crocodylus Park. [33]
Queensland
11.26 Ranching is not allowed in Queensland but large, nuisance crocodiles may be removed from the
wild and subsequently used for breeding. Because Queensland crocodile farmers do not have access to
an assured supply of young crocodile stock through the ranching of eggs, most of the enterprises rely on
tourism to supplement income and provide money for the development of infrastructure. [34] The
crocodile industry in Queensland would prefer that they had the ability to ranch, both because it would
increase the options and viability of the enterprises there and because it is seen to be an important
management tool in the conservation of crocodile habitat. [35]
11.27 The Queensland Department of Primary Industries has a research site at Townsville where it has
invested $300,000 in controlled environment housing in order to carry out research into nutrition of
crocodiles, and physical conditions required by crocodiles under commercial production. [36] The
Department has also provided a grant, along with others, to carry out research on the problem of
infertility among crocodiles at Edward River. [37] The industry in Queensland is considered to be
'comfortably viable'. [38]
Western Australia
11.28 The crocodile industry is in its infancy in Western Australia and because populations in the wild
are considerably fewer than in Northern Territory and Queensland, stock have been brought in from
other states. [39] A crocodile management plan for ranching in Western Australia was recently
approved and this has, according to Mr John Lever of the Queensland Crocodile Industry Group, meant
a 'boosting [of] confidence in the long term viability of the industry in that state and confidence that
ranching will not deplete wild stocks'. [40] Both ranching and farming are allowed in Western Australia:
farming is operated as both a captive-breeding and ranching style operation for saltwater crocodiles and
as a captive-breeding, ranching and direct harvest operation for freshwater crocodiles. The government
management program is supported by annual population monitoring concentrated in the east Kimberley,
the Cambridge Gulf and its river system, and the Ord River. [41]
11.29 There are two businesses operating through three premises in Western Australia. The Fremantle
Crocodile Park was established both as a breeding establishment at Wyndam and a zoo at Fremantle. It
keeps both saltwater and freshwater crocodiles. In addition to industry processing, the enterprise carries
out research and development in association with Murdoch University Veterinary School. Both meat and
skins are exported. [42] There is another crocodile farm at Broome. [43]
Conservation Benefits of Ranching
11.30 As suggested by the Queensland Crocodile Industry Group, conservation values are often biased
towards mammals such as kangaroos and koalas, because they are endearing, attractive, cuddly animals.
In contrast, most people associate fear with crocodiles and their draw as a tourist attraction comes more
from a perverse curiosity than from affection. Public perceptions of the conservation value of crocodiles
in the wild are similarly limited and thus management tools are needed which will ensure their survival in
their own native habitat. [44]
11.31 There is strong evidence that the ranching of crocodile eggs and hatchlings has a conservation
benefit to the broad habitat in which the two species are found. Evidence of this comes from the IUCN,
from individuals in Australia, and from overseas. The IUCN encourages the sustainable use of crocodiles
for skins and meat production as a legitimate conservation tool, provided the use is sustainable and
provided that it creates economic and other incentives to conserve the species in its own natural
wetlands habitats. [45]
11.32 As quoted by Mr John Lever of the Queensland Crocodile Industry Group, the Crocodile
Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission has recently drafted a statement in regard
to captive breeding programs, expressing the concern that:
… the conservation benefits derived from sustainable wild harvest programs can be undermined by
excessive production from closed cycle captive breeding programs, with little and sometimes no
conservation benefits …
11.33 The Crocodile Specialist Group has further stated that it:
- Will continue to encourage conservation programs based on sustainable use of wild crocodile
programs.
- Will not encourage the pursuit of commercially oriented closed-cycle captive breeding programs
where they are likely to undermine conservation efforts relying on the sustainable use of wild
populations.
- Where conservation benefits may result, will assist countries with programs based on closed-cycle
captive breeding to extend their management activities to include sustained use of wild
populations. [46]
11.34 In the south-eastern American states of Louisiana and Florida, most of the prime alligator habitat
of marshlands and everglades is privately owned. However, through a quota system set by the
government, landowners can sell alligator eggs to farms. The income derived from this enterprise has
encouraged people not to drain the marshlands and alligators, which were on the verge of extinction 20
years ago, now number more than 270,000 in Louisiana alone. [47] Research in Florida has shown that
the wild population of Alligator mississippiensis in that state can sustain an annual harvest of 15 percent
of alligators (over 4 feet long) and 50 per cent of eggs. [48]
11.35 The Northern Territory program was similarly cited in evidence to the Committee as one which
facilitated the protection of crocodile habitat, rather than just the species. So far, ranching in the
Northern Territory appears to have had negligible affect on the recruitment of wild offspring to the adult
population. When well managed, the process has a low risk of over-harvesting, but provides a strong
incentive to conserve animals of breeding age and thus a reason to conserve the habitat of those animals.
For an animal that is often considered to be a liability, the placement of a monetary value on eggs turns it
and its environment into an asset. [49]
11.36 According to Mr Peter Freeman of Hartley's Creek Crocodile Farm:
That is why the Northern Territory program has been such a success. They have tied in not only
conservation of the crocodiles but also conservation of the environment. Farmers are getting access to
stock and they are paying for it. They are part funding the protection of that environment. People are
starting to see crocodiles as something of value and it encourages them to help protect those crocodiles.
Also, by having a legitimate crocodile farming operation, you satisfy the demand of people for crocodiles
products. You are not encouraging people to go out in the wild and kill crocodiles or poach them
because the product is there and it is far cheaper than what they could ever do. [50]
11.37 Proponents of ranching, and the benefits that accrued from it, criticised the Queensland
management program which only allowed captive breeding because it provided no incentive for
conserving wild populations and their habitat. The comment was also made that closed-cycle breeding
farms in Queensland were marginal, size dependent and supported financially by tourism. Should
Queensland include ranching in its management plan for crocodiles, the financial viability of crocodile
enterprises in that state would probably be enhanced. [51]
11.38 Animal Liberation (Victoria), however, does not believe that any conservation benefit can be
derived from the ranching of crocodile eggs:
Despite claims by many farms that they serve the conservation ideal, no scientific evidence exists to
support such a claim. Instead eggs are now taken from the wild by teams of catchers to supplement farm
stock, with the high mortality rate of the young in the wild claimed as justification … However, unless
young crocodiles raised in captivity are returned to the wild in numbers greater than would have survived
in natural circumstances, the situation is only being exacerbated. [52]
Indigenous Use of Crocodiles
11.39 The ranching of crocodiles has become especially important for Aboriginal people in the Northern
Territory. As described by Dr William Freeland, Deputy Director of the Northern Territory Parks and
Conservation Commission:
We have large areas of Arnhem Land, particularly the Arafura Swamp, where we do have very
successful Aboriginal groups that collect eggs and are going to participate in this harvest. … In their first
year they made more money from crocodile eggs than they ever had from their cattle industry. That has
continued,give or take the effects of wet seasons and so forth,such that that is now their major
enterprise. [53]
11.40 In some areas, the income from crocodile enterprises is now going direct to Aboriginal councils.
For example, as related by Dr Webb:
… in the Arafura Swamp area they instigated their own incubation and the selling of hatchlings just
before the 1995-96 season and in that season they brought in $190,000. Nesting all over the territory
goes up and down, and nesting was down last year,they brought in $108,400.
In Maningrida nearby, now that they have brought in an incubator facility, their \DB\PGN\391income
this year from eggs was $78,150. The previous year when they were just selling eggs, their income
probably would have been about $8,000 to $9,000. [54]
11.41 The Murwangi Community Aboriginal Corporation has recently become involved in crocodile egg
harvesting and incubation. Representatives of the Corporation told the Committee in Darwin that income
from one season provided sufficient money to pay for an incubator and a shed. [55]
Regulatory Requirements and Difficulties
11.42 The cost of compliance with government regulations was of considerable concern to the crocodile
industry. To illustrate this point, Hartley's Creek Crocodile Farm provided a table of the various laws,
regulations and codes of practice with which the business had to comply in order to lawfully farm
crocodiles (Table 11.2). [56] Annual licensing fees were in the order of $2000 to $3000 a year. [57]
Hartley's Creek argued that the crocodile industry in Australia was already over-regulated by
government at all levels, but that at the same time there was a lack of coordination and consistency
between state and Federal governments concerning the interpretation of policy. It further argued that the
structure of existing legislation had too much emphasis on administrative matters (powers of officers and
enforcement, licence conditions, etc) and had insufficient emphasis on actual conservation of the
environment. [58]
11.43 The Queensland Crocodile Industry Group claimed that the export permit process from a
business point of view, was 'tardy and not in keeping with modern business practices':
Every product shipment to go overseas must be accompanied by a permit issued by the Australia Nature
Conservation Agency (ANCA). The fact that delays in the issue of these permits have extended beyond
reasonable commercial times, has jeopardised business opportunities. The issue of permits to export
products from Australia must be streamlined if we are to compete in the international arena where our
markets exist. [59]
11.44 Such was the burden of regulatory compliance in setting up Fremantle Crocodile Park by Mr Don
Wieringa, that Mr Julian Grill (MLA) [60] wrote to the Committee:
… the bureaucratic interference that has accompanied Mr Wieringa's ultimately successful attempts to
set up his export industry have been horrendous … such interference by government has been lengthy,
time consuming and expensive to combat'. [61]
| Controlling Authority | Legislation, Code or Guides
| Type of Licence or Permit
Required |
|---|
| Queensland Department of
Environment
| Nature Conservation Act Environment Protection Act
Code of Practice – Crocodile Farming
Code of Practice – Minimum Standards for
Exhibiting Wildlife in Queensland
| Wildlife Exhibitor's Licence Wildlife Farming Licence
Environmentally Relevant
Activity Licence
|
| Environment Australia | Wildlife Protection Act | Approval as closed-cycle farm |
| Australian Quarantine &
Inspection Service | Export Food (Processed) Orders | Registration of Establishment
FPA System |
| Queensland Meat and
Livestock Authority | Meat Industry Act Standard for Hygienic Production of Crocodile
Meat for Human Consumption
| Registration of Plant Q-Safe system
|
| Department of Training &
Industrial Relations | Workplace Health & Safety Act Guide to Crocodile Safety
| Registration of Workplace |
Table 11.2 - Regulatory compliance in the Queensland crocodile industry. (Source: Submission No.
158, p. 14).
Industry Potential
11.45 According to RIRDC, the current farm-gate value for crocodiles is $5 million. [62] Now that the
industry is well established, funding is being directed towards improving production techniques. [63]
Growth in the crocodile industry can occur in a number of ways:
- increase in the number of farms and ranching operations;
- increase in the size of existing enterprises; and
- value adding of product in Australia.
11.46 According to the Queensland Crocodile Industry Group, most crocodile farms in Australia are
quite small, having less than 3000 crocodiles. To be economically sustainable farms needed to hold
between 7,000 and 10,000 animals and turn off at least 1,000 skins per year. The value of a skin at
three years of age is currently about $275. However, to feed an animal to that size cost at least $100 per
head. [64]
11.47 As an example of industry development, Hartley's Creek Crocodile Farm which is situated 40 km
north of Cairns in Queensland, is a fully integrated business based on a wildlife park featuring Australian
crocodiles, a farming operation based on captive breeding techniques, an export registered crocodile
meat processing plant, a reptile tannery (approved but not yet constructed) and a leather goods factory.
The parent company, Austpan Pacific Pty Ltd, has only been established for two and a half years but
already employs 35 full-time staff. By the year 2000, it is anticipated that employment will be about 90
people, the farm will produce over 2000 crocodiles, export sales of leather goods will exceed $6m and
income generated from tourism will generate gross annual returns of $3m. While the industry in Australia
is at this stage quite small, there is a large demand for skins and an 'unbelievable' demand for meat. [65]
11.48 Austpan Pacific Pty Ltd currently employs about eight people in its AQIS accredited abattoir for
several months of the year when about 600 crocodiles are processed. The company expects production
to increase to about 2,000 to 3,000 within a few years. The abattoir is also used by other companies for
other species. Hartley's employ about 26 people in a leathergoods factory. At the moment, salted skins
are sent to Japan for tanning and they are then returned to Australia for manufacture into goods which
are in turn sent back to Japan for sale. [66]
Animal Welfare Issues
11.49 The commercial use of crocodiles was criticised on animal welfare grounds by a number of
groups. Notably, ANZFAS commented that there were three main areas of concern:
- taking of adults from the wild (either for use of their raw products or for trophy hunting);
- ranching and farming of crocodiles; and
- increased commercial activity which brought with it pressures for enhanced performance of
profitability with consequent impact on the species.
11.50 ANZFAS disagreed that crocodile populations were recovering from 'post-hunting lows'
(although the study quoted by ANZFAS to support this opinion was published in 1984) and
recommended full protection of the species in their natural habitats in order to encourage population
growth. ANZFAS opposed ranching and farming of crocodiles on the basis that animals born in the wild
must necessarily adapt to an artificial environment and because animals taken from the wild upset the
natural population balance. [67]
11.51 Animal Liberation (Victoria) was also critical of husbandry practices in the crocodile industry. In
its submission to the Committee the group argued:
All eggs produced and collected on the farms are hatched in tanks that are grossly overcrowded.
(Crocodiles are shy solitary creatures susceptible to stress. Baby crocodiles are prone to stress and
infection enhanced by crowded confinement). Young crocodiles are kept in these rearing cages for four
years. At the age of four, immature crocodiles are killed either most frequently by the severance of the
spinal cord or less often with a head shot at close range. Due to a lack of knowledge about reptilian
neurology it is still questionable whether severance of the spinal cord results in loss of awareness. Where
paying tourists are used to supplement the farms income, crocodile wrestling is promoted, mostly by
overcrowding the territorial beasts. [68]
Summary and Conclusions
11.52 Two species of crocodiles are endemic to Australia: the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) and the freshwater or Johnston's River crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni). Saltwater
crocodiles occur in estuarine mangrove habitats along the northern Australian coastline and extend into
most northern coastal rivers and swamps. Freshwater crocodiles occur primarily in the northern rivers
systems. The crocodile skin trade expanded dramatically in the 1950s and by the late 1960s populations
of both species were seriously depleted. After receiving full legislative protection, both species
recovered substantially and are now listed under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of
Exports and Imports) Act 1982 and under Appendix II of CITES.
11.53 Crocodile farming began in 1972 with the establishment by the Federal Government of an
enterprise situated at the Edward River Aboriginal Community in north Queensland. By 1997, there
were 17 licensed crocodile farms or ranching operations, seven in Queensland, eight in the Northern
Territory and two in Western Australia, with a total number of crocodiles held at about 50,000. The
industry is capital intensive, long-term and export oriented, and is currently expanding. It currently
generates about $3m per annum in sales of meat and skins. Many of the businesses involved in crocodile
production depend also on income from tourism to remain economically viable.
11.54 There are two methods by which young crocodiles can be obtained: (1) through the breeding of
adult stock in a contained environment (captive breeding); and (2) through the removal of eggs or
juveniles from the wild and their subsequent incubation and rearing in captivity. Termed ranching, the
latter method is considered to have a number of benefits over captive breeding. Ranching is less capital
intensive than captive-breeding because adult breeding animals do not have to be maintained. There is
strong evidence that the ranching of crocodile eggs and hatchlings has a conservation benefit to the
broad habitat in which the two species are found. In addition, the ranching of crocodiles has become
important for Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory, providing a significant source of income and
employment. Both methods are allowed in the Northern Territory and Western Australia but in
Queensland ranching is prohibited.
11.55 Raising crocodiles takes three to four years. Crocodile skin is highly regarded as a leather and
saltwater crocodile skin is more valuable than freshwater. Currently, Australian crocodile producers
send all skins off-shore for tanning. Most are then returned for subsequent manufacture into designer
products. Small but increasing quantities of crocodile meat are being produced for the domestic market.
The current farm-gate value for crocodiles is $5 million. Now that the industry is well established,
funding is being directed towards improving production techniques. Growth in the crocodile industry can
occur in three main ways: increase in the number of farms and ranching operations; increase in the size of
existing enterprises; and value adding of product in Australia. The major economic benefits of the
industry are the growth of an export industry and the provision of income to landholders and Aboriginal
communities through the sale of crocodile eggs to farms. Other benefits include the enhancement of
public education and the promotion of scientific research on demography, biology and habitat
requirements. The cost of regulatory compliance and lack of coordination and consistency between state
and Federal governments in administration is of particular concern to industry.
11.56 The commercial use of crocodiles was criticised on animal welfare grounds by a number of
groups. There were three main areas of concern: taking of adults from the wild; ranching and farming of
crocodiles; and increased commercial activity which brought with it pressures for enhanced performance
of profitability with consequent impact on the conservation value of the species.
11.57 The Committee concludes that the crocodile industry in Australia is small but apparently
strong and growing. It is supplemented to an undetermined extent by income from tourism
enterprise. There is considerable potential for value-added income from crocodile leather if
high quality tanneries can be established in Australia. The Committee accepts advice from
expert witnesses that the industry is, at the current level of harvesting, ecologically
sustainable. The Committee concludes that the two most significant aspects of the crocodile
industry are its potential to assist in the preservation of wetlands habitat and the potential for
indigenous communities to become more significantly involved in local, economic enterprises.
Footnotes
[1] Unless acknowledged otherwise, the following general information has been taken from the Bureau
of Resource Sciences publication Commercial use of wild animals in Australia, by Brian J Ramsay,
AGPS Canberra, 1994, ISBN 0644297751, pp 71-73.
[2] Submission No. 157, p. 11.
[3] Between 1945 and 1972 some 270,000 - 330,000 crocodiles were shot for their skins. Ramsay, B
J Commercial Use of Wild Animals Bureau of Resource Science, Department of Primary Industries
and Energy, AGPS, Canberra, p. 71. By 1971, the saltwater crocodile was thought to number only
about 5,000 (Submission No. 157, p.11).
[4] Evidence, p. RRA&T 157, p. 11.
[5] Submission No. 158, p. 5.
[6] Evidence, p. RRA&T 130.
[7] However, as noted by Dr Grahame Webb, economic extinction of the resource had occurred long
before species extinction was threatened (Submission No. 157, p. 11).
[8] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 129, 181.
[9] Bureau of Resource Sciences publication Commercial use of wild animals in Australia, by Brian J
Ramsay, AGPS Canberra, 1994, ISBN 0644297751, p. 72.
[10] Submission No. 309, p. 1.
[11] Submission No. 158, p. 5.
[12] Submission No. 309, p.1.
[13] Nuisance crocodiles are broadly defined as 'those individuals that are attacking stock in pastoral
areas, and those within settled areas or areas of recreational use, where public safety is a prime
consideration. In some areas, such as Darwin Harbour and Nhulunbuy, any crocodile, regardless of
species or size, constitutes a problem animal'. A Management Program for Crocodylus porosus &
Crocodylus johnstoni in the Northern Territory of Australia. November 1996 Parks and Wildlife
Commission of the Northern Territory, p. 6.
[14] At Murwangi Station, via Raminging, in the Northern Territory, for example, when the swamp
floods it drowns almost all crocodile eggs. Evidence, p. RRA&T 392.
[15] Evidence, p. RRA&T 131.
[16] Submission No. 5, pp. 1-2.
[17] Submission No. 158, p. 11.
[18] Evidence, p. RRA&T 184.
[19] Evidence, p. RRA&T 376.
[20] Evidence, p. RRA&T 183.
[21] Submission No. 309, p. 3.
[22] Evidence, p. RRA&T 135.
[23] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 136-7.
[24] Evidence, p. RRA&T 134.
[25] Evidence, p. RRA&T 195.
[26] Submission No. 157, p. 15.
[27] A Management Program for Crocodylus porosus & Crocodylus johnstoni in the Northern
Territory of Australia. November 1996 Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory, p.
2.
[28] A Management Program, op cit, p. 1.
[29] A Management Program, op cit, pp. 6-7; see also Evidence, p. RRA&T 337.
[30] Submission No. 182; Evidence, pp. RRA&T 347ff.
[31] Submission No. 157, p. 12.
[32] Submission No. 309, p. 2.
[33] Submission No. 112, p. 3.
[34] Submission No. 309, p. 2. This is also the case in other areas see RIRDC 1998 The New Rural
Industries A Handbook for Farmers and Investors, edited by K W Hyde, ISBN 0642246904, p.
27.
[35] Evidence, p. RRA&T 130.
[36] Evidence, p. RRA&T 192.
[37] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 182, 194; The project is co-funded by the QDPI, University of
Queensland, James Cook University, and the Queensland Department of the Environment.
[38] Evidence, p. RRA&T 78.
[39] Evidence, p. RRA&T 518.
[40] Submission No. 309, p.2.
[41] Evidence, p. RRA&T 518.
[42] Submission No. 305.
[43] Evidence, p. RRA&T 518.
[44] Evidence, p. RRA&T 131, Submission No. 309, p. 3; see also Submission No. 158, p. 5..
[45] Submission No. 158, p. 13.
[46] Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter v.15 (4), p. 5 as quoted in Submission No. 309, p. 3.
[47] Evidence, p. RRA&T 170.
[48] Submission No. 5, p. 1; also cited in Evidence, p. RRA&T 830.
[49] Submission No.s 158, 309; Evidence, p. RRA&T 335.
[50] Evidence, p. RRA&T 175, see also Evidence, pp. RRA&T 335-6.
[51] Submission No. 309, p. 3.
[52] Submission No. 87, p. 9.
[53] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 336, 339.
[54] Evidence, p. RRA&T 390.
[55] Evidence, p. RRA&T 392.
[56] Submission No. 158, pp. 13-14.
[57] Evidence, p. RRA&T 175.
[58] Submission No. 158, p. 1.
[59] Submission No. 309, p. 3 (note: ANCA is now Environment Australia).
[60] Member for Eyre, WA.
[61] Submission No. 305, p. 1.
[62] Evidence, p. RRA&T 1118.
[63] Submission No. 158, p. 12.
[64] Evidence, p. RRA&T 132-3.
[65] Submission No. 158, p. 3; Evidence, p. RRA&T 169, 172.
[66] Evidence, pp. RRA&T 172-3.
[67] Submission No. 178, pp. 11-15.
[68] Submission No. 87, pp. 9-10. (Note: the Committee received no other evidence of 'crocodile
wrestling'.)