1. Introduction

Background

1.1A healthy and stable democracy depends on the active participation of informed and engaged citizens. This requires at least a basic level of civic literacy to understand political discourse and legal frameworks that shape our society – skills built through quality lifelong civics education.[1]

1.2In Australia, where voting is compulsory, formal participation rates in federal elections exceed 94 per cent.[2] However, the value of compulsory voting is undermined if voters lack the civics education needed to understand issues and know who they are voting for.[3]

1.3Civics is more than participating in elections. Beyond voting, civic participation and engagement encompasses a wide range of activities that contribute to public life such as community involvement, public advocacy, collective action and corresponding with elected representatives.[4] Participation in these activities helps people become familiar with, shape and therefore be more willing to trust democratic processes and institutions.[5]

1.4In addition to civic knowledge, media literacy is vital for a healthy democracy. In an age of misinformation and disinformation, good civics and media literacy education ensures that Australians can critically evaluate news and information they consume, and that public discourse remains grounded in fact.[6]

1.5However, democracies around the world, including Australia, are facing challenges such as foreign interference, rising disinformation and discord online, and polarisation.[7] Young people are feeling disillusioned and disconnected from civic society and there has been a steady decrease and erosion in public trust in democracy.[8]

Civics education in Australia

1.6An increased interest in formal civics and citizenship education in Australia has occurred since the 1990s. In 1994, the report of the Civics Expert Group found ‘a national chronic deficit of civic knowledge and concern about the levels of commitment to Australian political institutions’ and argued for a greater emphasis on civics and citizenship education.[9]

1.7In 1997, the Coalition Government introduced the ‘Discovering Democracy’ program following the Keating Government’s Civics Expert Group initiative. The program developed curriculum materials and supported professional learning for teachers in teaching civics.[10]

1.8An evaluation of the Discovering Democracy program was conducted in 2003 and despite finding that it ‘produced a substantial amount of very useful, effective resources’,[11] the evaluators recommended its termination as implementation ‘was highly variable in schools in terms of expanding student civics and citizenship knowledge, understanding and dispositions’.[12]

1.9In 1999, the Adelaide Declaration on Educational Directions was announced andidentified the need for civics and citizenship education in schools so that when students leave, they can ‘be active and informed citizens with an understanding and appreciation of Australia’s system of government and civic life’.[13]

1.10In 2008, all state, territory and federal education ministers adopted the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians. The Melbourne Declaration affirmed the importance of education for all young Australians to become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens.[14]

1.11The Melbourne Declaration led to the establishment of the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) in 2008, and in 2009 the Commonwealth, state and territory governments committed to a national Australian Curriculum.[15]

The Australian Curriculum

1.12Under the Constitution, legislating on primary and secondary schooling is not included in the powers of the Commonwealth Parliament. State and territory governments and non-government education authorities are responsible for the management of schools, including implementation of the curriculum.[16]

1.13The Australian Curriculum is a national curriculum for primary and secondary schools from Foundation to Year 10. The first version was released in 2010 for English, Mathematics, Science and History, with ‘significant revisions’ in 2015 and 2021.[17] Civics and Citizenship has been in the Australian Curriculum since 2014 (Version 8.4).[18]

1.14The Australian Curriculum is designed as a learning progression and has a three-dimensional design, which comprises:

• Learning areas: including English, Mathematics, Science, Humanities and Social Sciences, the Arts, Technologies, Health and Physical Education, and Languages
• General capabilities: including the knowledge, skills, behaviours, and dispositions that students need to live and work successfully. There are seven general capabilities, including literacy, critical and creative thinking, ethical understanding, and intercultural understanding
• Cross-curriculum priorities: which are matters given additional attention across the Curriculum. The cross-curriculum priorities are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures, Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia, and sustainability.[19]
  15. A review of the Australian Curriculum in 2021 led to the current version (Version 9.0) which is ‘more stripped-back and teachable’ and ‘identifies the essential content students should learn’.[20]
  16. ACARA said that Version 9.0 was informed by Goal 2 of the Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration made by all state and territory education ministers, that ‘all young Australians become confident and creative individuals, successful lifelong learners, and active and informed members of the community’.[21]

Civics and citizenship in the Australian Curriculum Version 9.0

1.17Students are introduced to the discipline of civics and citizenship from Year 3 as a sub-strand of the Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS) curriculum.[22] The following concepts are developed with increasing complexity across Years 3 to 6:

Identity and diversity: Students understand the factors, including values and traditions, that shape personal and shared identity, and the diversity of Australia as a culturally diverse and multi-faith society.

Democracy and citizenship: Students learn about the key democratic and legal institutions, processes, rights and roles that underpin Australian democracy, and the responsibilities and obligations of citizens in local, regional, national and global communities.[23]

1.18From Years 7 to 8, civics and citizenship becomes a standalone subject among other HASS subjects: Geography, Civics and Citizenship, and Economics and Business.[24]

1.19From Years 9 to 10, students’ access to civics and citizenship is determined by school authorities or individual schools through the same four subjects.[25]

1.20The following civics and citizenship concepts are expected to be developed from Years 7 to 10 with increasing complexity:

Active citizenship: Citizens are entitled to certain rights, privileges and responsibilities; therefore, being an active citizen requires engagement and informed participation in the civic and political activities of society at local, state, national, regional and global levels.

Democracy: Democracy is a system of government where power is vested in the people. The will of the majority is accepted and exercised directly or indirectly through elected representatives, who may remove and replace political leaders and governments in free, fair and regular elections.

Global citizenship: Students recognise that in addition to having rights and responsibilities flowing from our Australian citizenship, we also live in an increasingly interdependent world, where citizens’ concerns transcend geographical or political borders, and people can exercise rights and responsibilities at a global level.

Legal systems: Students understand the function of legal systems, the rule of law and its application. They also understand equality before the law, and the importance of judicial independence and objectivity leading to the law being perceived as fair.

Identity and diversity: Identity is a person’s sense of who they are, and conception and expression of their individuality or association with a group, culture, state, nation or a region of the world, regardless of their legal citizenship status. Students’ understanding of diversity includes acknowledgement of Australia as a culturally diverse, multi-faith and cohesive society.[26]

1.21Beyond Year 10, senior secondary schooling varies significantly between the states and territories, as well as between individual students within a single school. The Australian Curriculum extends to senior secondary schooling, but is only developed in the areas of English, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Earth and Environmental Science, Physics, Ancient History, Modern History and Geography.[27]

1.22Within the secondary certificates offered in each state and territory, students are given the opportunity to select subjects of their choosing, such as Legal Studies or Politics, which includes aspects of civics and citizenship.[28]

1.23ACARA noted that Years 11 and 12 are marked by ‘flexibility for students to choose that pathway and be prepared for that next phase of their life’.[29]

State and territory adoption of the Australian Curriculum

1.24Each state and territory, and individual schools, can adopt their own specific approach to teaching the Australian Curriculum ‘to meet the needs of their local contexts and students’.[30] This means that they can also exercise considerable autonomy in their approach to both curriculum content and delivery.[31]

1.25In the Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia (SA) and Tasmania, the Australian Curriculum forms the basis of teaching and learning. In the Australian Capital Territory, ‘schools are required to meaningfully incorporate into their curriculum plans and sequential learning programs the three dimensions of the Australian Curriculum’.[32]

1.26The SA Government recently announced ‘a nation-leading civics and citizenship learning reform’ where all Year 7 and 8 public school students will undertake a compulsory civics class, and:

Lesson time for years 7 and 8 in Civics and Citizenship will increase from the national average of 32 minutes per week, to the equivalent of a 60-minute lesson per week, with increased opportunities for democratic engagement within each school.[33]

1.27The SA Government said that in this reform it will also work towards ‘having a specialist civics and citizenship educator in every public secondary and birth to Year 12 public school’.[34]

1.28New South Wales (NSW), Victoria and Western Australia (WA) ‘adopt and adapt’ the Australian Curriculum by repackaging it into a syllabus.[35]

1.29In NSW, the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) is responsible for the Kindergarten to Year 12 curriculum. NESA is currently implementing a major reform of the NSW curriculum by 2027.[36] NESA said that the reform has included the redevelopment of syllabuses containing content on civics and citizenship, which will be embedded across the History, Geography and Commerce syllabuses and will allow teachers to teach civics and citizenship-related issues in the context of their subject speciality.[37]

1.30The reform also includes making some units mandatory, such as ‘Making a Nation’ for Year 9 and 10 students which contains ‘a lot of our civics and citizenship material’ and strengthening the content for teachers who teach Kindergarten to Year 6.[38]

1.31NESA emphasised that the rationale for this change was to highlight the importance of understanding Australia’s political system:

The other reality, though, is that, as with literacy and numeracy, we would believe that civics and citizenship is a central learning entitlement for every student in New South Wales. Our aim would be to make sure that students, at least by year 10, had a very good grasp of the essential knowledge in civics and citizenship that they required.[39]

1.32Victoria uses a curriculum developed by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). In June 2024, the VCAA published its new curriculum, which ‘improves upon the Australian Curriculum Version 9.0 by ensuring Civics and Citizenship is its own distinct discipline’ from Years 3 to 6 rather than integrated into other HASS subjects.[40]

1.33In WA, the school curriculum ‘remains broadly consistent with the Australian Curriculum but has been contextualised to make it more suitable for Western Australian students and teachers’.[41]

Testing of civics and citizenship knowledge

1.34Civics and citizenship knowledge and attitudes amongst school students in Australia have been regularly measured since 2004 via the National Assessment Program – Civics and Citizenship (NAP-CC) sample assessment.[42] The NAP-CC has been conducted every three years since, with the exception of the most recent assessment, which was conducted in 2019.The COVID-19 pandemic delayed the 2022 assessment to May 2024, and results are expected in early 2025.[43]

1.35The NAP-CC assesses and reports on students’ knowledge and understanding of Australia’s democracy and system of government, as well as the rights and obligations of citizens and the values that underpin Australian society.[44] The results are made available to Australia’s education ministers and departments, as well as curriculum authorities, and are publicly available.[45] The sample reflects students from government, Catholic and independent schools across metropolitan, rural and remote areas.[46]

1.36ACARA told the Committee that there hasn’t been a ‘statistically significant change’ in students’ proficiency in civics and citizenship since the assessment began in 2004, when students received a 50 per cent proficiency and a slightly higher result of 53 per cent in 2019.[47]

1.37Other stakeholders, such as Professor Rosalind Dixon and Rose Vassel described the results as revealing ‘troubling gaps in students’ civics knowledge’.[48] Professor Murray Print said that the results are clear that ‘young Australians are poorly equipped to participate in Australia’s democracy’.[49]

1.38Table 1.1 provides the percentage of Year 6 and 10 students at or above the proficient standard nationally since 2004.

Source: ACARA, NAP–CC 2019 Public Report, 2020, pages 23 and 24.

1.39Professor Rosalind Dixon and Rose Vassel added that:

Moreover, the attainment of the proficient standard is not evenly distributed across demographic lines – female students, non-Indigenous students and students at metropolitan schools outperform male, Indigenous and rural/regional students respectively. Parental occupation and education were also shown to have a significant impact on outcomes.[50]

1.40The NAP-CC also includes a survey ‘that gathers information on students’ attitudes towards civics and citizenship issues and their participation in civic activities’.[51] The most recent survey in 2019 found that students who scored higher in the NAP-CC had higher levels of trust in civic institutions and processes and attributed greater importance to civics and citizenship behaviours.[52]

1.41Professor Anne Twomey said there is still a falling trust in government (with only 55 per cent of Year 10 students expressing trust in the Commonwealth Parliament), which is consistent with surveys of the general population.[53]

Why isn’t civics education working?

1.42A significant theme in this inquiry was that civics education, both formal and informal, is not working. Australians are struggling to fully participate in our democracy because the status quo is fragmented and inequitable.[54] Both formal and informal education is disjointed and inadequate to not only prepare our young people to cast an informed vote, but to ensure that citizens of all ages can take an active interest in public life.

1.43Inequitable access to formal civics education can be attributed to several factors, discussed in further detail in Chapter 2 of this report:

• limited time allocated to teaching and learning in a crowded curriculum
• teacher knowledge, training and time to deliver civics content
• school resourcing
• flexibility in curriculums
• barriers related to social, socio-economic, linguistic and regional and remote disadvantage
• distance of schools from Canberra as barriers to visiting national cultural institutions.
  44. Engagement in civics is not limited to schooling or to the education of children and youth. Participation in informal civics education, civic activities and targeted initiatives to support and nurture civic capacity and engagement are also important aspects of a healthy and stable democracy for Australians of all ages.
  45. People may experience inequitable participation in civic activities and electoral events for a number of reasons, including, but not limited to:
• socioeconomic factors
• accessibility due to location, disability or language barriers
• lack of knowledge
• confusion due to different electoral systems for federal, state and local governments.
  46. This report also examines the effect of low media literacy on civics education and engagement. Australians with a poor level of media literacy creates a barrier to civic participation and engagement, and the potential to undermine efforts to strengthen civics education if not addressed.
  47. There was strong support for a national strategy for media and digital literacy to better equip Australians with the skills to discern between fact and fiction. This is discussed further in Chapter 4.

Recent inquiries and reviews

1.48Three recent parliamentary inquiries have examined aspects of civics and citizenship education in Australia.

1.49In 2021, the Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs reported on its inquiry into nationhood, national identity and democracy. Among the Committee’s recommendations were:

• the teaching of history and active citizenship should be made compulsory in Years 9 and 10, with the time dedicated increased to 30 hours per year and taught by appropriately trained teachers
• National Cabinet should increase the number of school children accessing trips to democratic and cultural institutions through the Parliamentary and Civics Education Rebate (PACER) program each year
• the Australian government engage in dialogue with citizens and prospective citizens about their rights and responsibilities, and our shared values, history and national identity
• a national strategy to tackle fake news and misinformation is developed
• options are developed to ensure greater youth input into political processes of the federal parliament and promote democracy among youth.[55]
  50. The government responded in May 2024 and noted all recommendations but did not provide a substantive response ‘given the passage of time since this report was tabled’.[56]
  51. The Joint Standing Committee on the National Capital and External Territories inquired into Canberra’s national institutions and tabled its report on 3 April 2019. It recommended a program that encourages new migrants to Australia to visit Canberra’s national institutions and a comprehensive review of the PACER program. The Committee also recommended an expansion of the facilities and resourcing of the Parliamentary Education Office and the National Electoral Education Centre to allow the institutions to offer regular programs for the public as well as school groups.[57]
  52. In May 2024, the government noted most recommendations but did not provide a substantive response ‘given the passage of time since this report was tabled’.[58]
  53. The Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters has previously conducted an inquiry into civics and electoral education. It tabled its report on 18 June 2007 and made 17 recommendations addressing young people’s civic engagement and knowledge, and improvements for civics education for First Nations and migrant communities.[59]
  54. One recent parliamentary inquiry examined aspects of media literacy. The Joint Select Committee on Social Media and Australian Society tabled its report on 18 November 2024 and among its 12 recommendations, recommended that a Digital Affairs Ministry be tasked with developing, coordinating and managing funding allocated for education to enhance digital competency and online safety skills.[60]

Scope and conduct of the inquiry

1.55The Committee adopted an inquiry into civics education, engagement, and participation in Australia on Wednesday, 27 March 2024, following a referral from the Special Minister of State, Senator the Hon Don Farrell.

1.56The terms of reference for the inquiry are provided in the front pages of this report and are available on the inquiry webpage.

1.57The Committee called for written submissions, addressing one or more of the terms of reference, by Friday, 24 May 2024.

1.58The Committee received 132 submissions, held 11 public hearings and five site visits in Canberra, the Northern Territory, Queensland and Victoria. The list of submissions is provided at Appendix A. The list of public hearings and witnesses is provided at Appendix B.

1.59The Committee also opened three online surveys on Wednesday, 5 June 2024 to seek views on, and experiences of, civics and citizenship education from school students, recent school leavers, and educators.

1.60The surveys closed on Friday, 30 August 2024 and received 590 responses from school students, 314 responses from educators, and 55 responses from school leavers. A summary of the results from each survey is available at Appendix C.

1.61The Committee wishes to thank all the individuals and organisations who contributed their time, experience and expertise in making submissions and appearing at public hearings.

Report structure

1.62Chapter two considers the current state of formal civics education in Australia, the effectiveness of the way civics and citizenship education is taught and how it can be improved. It also considers the role of cultural institutions that offer civics and citizenship education to students as part of the Australian Curriculum.

1.63Chapter three considers the effectiveness and limitations of the methods through which all Australians seek and receive education and information about our democracy, electoral events and voting, beyond the classroom.

1.64Chapter four examines the role of media literacy in shaping civic engagement and participation and how to better empower Australians to detect and avoid misinformation and disinformation and engage in informed debates on democratic issues.

Footnotes

[1]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 5; Department of Home Affairs, Submission 85, p. 4.

[2]Australian Electoral Commission, Submission 330 to theinquiry into the conduct of the 2022 federal election, p. 12.

[3]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 5.

[4]Department of Home Affairs, Submission 85, p. 4.

[5]Department of Home Affairs, Submission 85, p. 4.

[6]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 5.

[7]Department of Home Affairs, Submission 85, p. 4.

[8]Australian Historical Association, Submission 84, p. 3.

[9]Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER), Submission 64, p. 1; Constitution Education Fund Australia (CEFA), Submission 99, p. 17.

[10]Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters, Civics and Electoral Education, May 2007, p. 31; ACER, Submission 64, p. 1.

[11]Professor Murray Print, Exhibit 1a, ‘The Context of Civics and Citizenship Education in Australia’, p. 12.

[12]Professor Print, Exhibit 1a, pages 7-8.

[13]Professor Print, Exhibit 1a, p. 8.

[14]ACER, Submission 64, pages 1-2; CEFA, Submission 99, p. 19.

[15]Professor Print, Exhibit 1a, p. 13.

[16]Department of Education, Submission 38, p. 3.

[17]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 9.

[18]Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), Submission 69, p. 2.

[19]ACARA, ‘Australian Curriculum - F-10 Curriculum overview’, 2024, https://v9.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/f-10-curriculum-overview#3, viewed 4 December 2024.

[20]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 9.

[21]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 2.

[22]Department of Education, Submission 38, p. 3.

[23]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 3.

[24]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 3.

[25]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 3.

[26]ACARA, Submission 69, pages 3-4.

[27]Professor Lisa Hill, Professor Rodrigo Praino and Ms Isabella Courtney, Submission 19, p. 8.

[28]Professor Hill et al, Submission 19, p. 8.

[29]Mr Stephen Gniel, Acting Chief Executive Officer, ACARA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 23 May 2024, p. 12.

[30]Department of Education, Submission 38, p. 3.

[31]Youth Decide Australia, Submission 80, p. 2.

[32]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 10.

[33]South Australian Government, Submission 125, p. 3.

[34]South Australian Government, Submission 125, p. 3.

[35]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 11.

[36]NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA), Submission 25, p. 1.

[37]NESA, Submission 25, p. 1.

[38]Dr Paul Cahill, Executive Director, Curriculum, NESA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 3 October 2024, p. 49.

[39]Dr Cahill, NESA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 3 October 2024, p. 46.

[40]Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, Submission 16, p 1.

[41]Law Council of Australia, Submission 109, p. 11.

[42]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 4.

[43]Mr Russell Dyer, Executive Director, and Mr Stephen Gniel, Chief Executive Officer, Assessment and Reporting, ACARA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 3 October 2024, p. 53; Department of Education, Submission 38, p. 11.

[44]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 78.

[45]Mr Gniel, ACARA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 23 May 2024, p. 9; Mr Gniel, ACARA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 3 October 2024, p. 54.

[46]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 5.

[47]Mr Gniel, ACARA, Committee Hansard, Canberra, 23 May 2024, p. 9.

[48]Professor Rosalind Dixon and Rose Vassel, Submission 78, p. 4.

[49]Professor Murray Print, Submission 96, p. 3.

[50]Professor Dixon and R Vassel, Submission 78, p. 4.

[51]ACARA, Submission 69, p. 5.

[52]ACARA, NAP–CC 2019 Public Report, pages 77, 81.

[53]Professor Anne Twomey, Submission 31, p. 3.

[54]CEFA, Submission 99, p. 1.

[55]Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Nationhood, national identity and democracy, February 2021, pages ix-x.

[56]Department of Education, Australian Government response to the Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs report: Nationhood, national identity and democracy, May 2024, p. [2].

[57]Joint Standing Committee on the National Capital and External Territories, Telling Australia's story - and why it's important, April 2019, pages xvi-xvii.

[58]Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, Australian Government response to the Joint Standing Committee on the National Capital and External Territories report: Telling Australia’s story – and why it’s important: Report on the inquiry into Canberra’s national institutions, May 2024.

[59]Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters, Civics and Electoral Education, May 2007, pages xv to xviii.

[60]Joint Select Committee on Social Media and Australian Society, Social media: the good, the bad, and the ugly, November 2024, p. xii.