Footnotes

Executive summary and recommendations

[1]        Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics, Estimating urban traffic and congestion cost trends for Australian cities, working paper 71, 2007

[2]        'External costs' are explained at paragraph 3.19.

Chapter 1 - Conduct of the inquiry

[1]        Projections of future traffic congestion made in 2007 by Commonwealth's Bureau of Transport and Infrastructure Economics (BTRE)  have been much quoted since then. See BTRE 2007.

[2]        Almost all public transport trips have a walking element, so public transport users are likely to be more active than non-users: see paragraph 3.53ff.

[3]        For example, submission 134, Western Australia Local Government Association. G. Hoffman (Local Government Association of Queensland), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.33

[4]        House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage, Sustainable Cities, August 2005, p.70,73,77

[5]        Senate Standing Committee on Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport, Australia's future oil supply and alternative transport fuels, February 2007, p.154, 163

[6]        For comment on Travelsmart programs see paragraph 5.10ff.

[7]        Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission 2006: xxxix-xliii

[8]        Council of Australian Governments 2006:6ff,48,55

[9]        Garnaut 2008:504

[10]      Infrastructure Australia 2008:7,37

[11]      There is some fuzziness at the edges, for example in relation to school buses which are often provided by the same operator and may or may not be open to other riders. A taxi, once it is reserved for the personal use of one hirer, is not 'public transport' in this sense, though of course public transport and taxis have overlapping roles in serving certain transport demands.

Chapter 2 - Background on public transport in Australia

[1]        In Sydney 47% of public transport trips are train trips. Train trips are more important in passenger kilometres travelled as they tend to be longer. Transport Data Centre 2008:5.

[2]        In these areas the buses which replaced trams (except in Melbourne) often still follow the original tram routes.

[3]        An exception may be the journey to work in favourable situations.

[4]        Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:23. Cosgrove 2009.

[5]        Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.18. Infrastructure Australia 2008:43. Corpuz 2007:1.

[6]        For example in Sydney in the AM peak period (6.30-9.30am) about 5 per cent of all trips in the metropolitan area have a destination in Sydney CBD. G. Corpuz, NSW Transport Data Centre, pers. comm. July 2009.

[7]        In Sydney the average length of trips is: car 10km; train 20km, bus 7km, walk only 700 metres (estimated), 'other' (taxi/bicycle/other not defined) 7km. Figures are for the Sydney Statistical Division which includes the Central Coast and Blue Mountains, so the rail figure is probably significantly weighted by long commuter trips, and would be lower for the Sydney metropolitan area only. 'Other' is split equally between taxi, bicycle and other not defined. 'Walk only' excludes walking to access other modes of the transport. Transport Data Centre 2008:5,29,34.

[8]        This is relevant to judging the value of public transport to prevent social isolation. A 3 kilometre bus trip which is a pensioner's weekly outing to the social club probably has greater marginal utility to the traveller than a 3 kilometre car trip which is a fringe dweller's jaunt to the shop to pick up a bottle of milk that they forgot earlier.

[9]        In Sydney, 2006, the mode share of trips was  car 69.5%, train 4.9%, bus 5.6%, walk only 17.7%, other 2.3%. Transport Data Centre 2008:6

[10]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2002:xii. Cosgrove 2009.

[11]      How much of the last point is cause and how much effect (given the rise in car use, there was no need to live in areas with good public transport) is debatable.

[12]      Cosgrove 2009.

[13]      Submission 189, NSW Ministry of Transport, p.4.  Submission 130, Environment Victoria, p.2. Submission 10, Victorian Public Transport Ombudsman, p.1. Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation of Australia, p.10. Submission 53, Council of Mayors SEQ, p.9. M. Hopkins (Victorian Department of Transport), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.89

[14]      Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics 2009:2. Victorian Department of Transport, additional information 30 March 2009, p.12: in a survey of people's reason for switching to public transport, the most important reasons were petrol prices; health and fitness, and environmental concerns. See also M. Hopkins (Victorian Department of Transport), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.90. See P. Moore (UITP), Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.14, for US research on why people are driving less.

[15]      For example, NSW Government 2006:16; Queensland Transport 2009:xi; Victorian Government 2008a:62. Sydney is expected to grow from 4.2 million people in 2006 to 5.9 million in 2036. Melbourne is expected to grow from 3.7 million to 5.4 million by 2036. The population of south east Queensland is expected to reach 4 million by 20226. Submission 189, NSW Ministry of Transport, p.3. Victorian Government, additional information 30 March 2009, p.3. Queensland Transport 2008:v

[16]      Australian Bicycle Council 2004:5-7. See also submission 76, Cycling Promotion Fund, p.6

[17]      M. Burke (Pedestrian and bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.24. Use of bicycles for the journey to work increased from 2001-2006 by: Sydney 9% Melbourne 43% Adelaide 31%, Hobart 25%, Perth 16%, Canberra 16%, Brisbane 13%; Darwin -7%. ABS data: see submission 45, C. Rissell, attachment. ABS data, being collected in winter, may be conservative: submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.43.

[18]      For example Cr C. Moore (Sydney City Council), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.14. Sydney City Council has ambitions projects to promote cycling in its area. Council has argued that promoting cycling on the Anzac Bridge (Rozelle-City) could postpone the need for costly capacity upgrades.  In 2008 nine per cent of traffic entering Melbourne CBD was bicycles: 'Space for bikes as builders make all the ride moves', The Age 27/7/2009:6. Many car trips are quite short and could easily become bicycle trips if it was possible to ride safely. Submission 66, Sydney City Council, p.10. Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.44. Submission 138, Bicycle Network. M. Burke (Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.24.

[19]      CBD metro and west metro in Sydney; cross-city rail tunnel and 'Regional Rail Express' (Tarneit link) in Melbourne; inner city rail expansion options under study in Brisbane.

[20]      'Cross-suburban' may include significant travel that is on radial routes but not to the central business district: Public Transport Users Association 2009a:22

[21]      Since it does not require extra vehicles that are used only once or twice a day.

[22]      For example, if car and public transport trips are now in the ratio 9 to 1, and 10 per cent of car trips become public transport trips, this would almost double public transport use.

[23]      The major exception is Brisbane City Council, which for historical reasons operates most of the bus services in the council area (which has a population of about 1 million and covers  almost two thirds of metropolitan Brisbane). The State Government contributes to the operating subsidy: Cr J. Prentice (Brisbane City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.8

[24]      Gold Coast City Council contributes $5 million to the State's operating subsidy of Gold Coast bus services. This is funded by a levy on residents. W. Rowe (Gold Coast City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.69. Submission 54, Gold Coast City Council, p.3

[25]      Councils often provide or contribute to community transport: see paragraph 4.67ff.

[26]      For example, 700 private bus and ferry companies are contracted, funded and regulated by the NSW government: submission 189, NSW Ministry of Transport, p.2

[27]      And of course the contractor's profit; but the arrangement is made in the hope that even allowing for this the cost will be less than in full government ownership.

[28]      For example Melbourne train and tram contracts, and Perth bus contracts, have revenue-sharing arrangements for patronage in excess of a base case.

[29]      Australasian Railway Association 2006:12,22.

[30]      Cost recovery information is often hard to extract from official reports. Actual farebox revenue may not be reported separately from government community service payments to top up concession fares. Service providers under contract may simply report the contract sum as their income, which will make the financial result look close to break even (since the contract sum was calculated to have that effect). The contracting government authority may report the farebox revenue and the contract expense mixed in with its other revenue and expenses.

[31]      Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.27. ARA 2006:22. This excludes the cost of significant capital works. 'Five capitals': Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth.

[32]      Full economic costs are the sum of user charges, government subsidies and external costs.

[33]      Submission 88, G. Glazebrook, attachment: Taking the con out of convenience: the true cost of transport modes in Sydney, 2009, s6. Glazebrook 2009.

[34]      The subsidy per trip could decrease as the fixed costs of the operation are spread over more riders.

[35]      ABS Household Expenditure Survey 2003-04: 7,735,800 households times average weekly expenditure on motor vehicle ownership and operation $132.76; adjusted for inflation. 

[36]      'External costs': costs which a person's actions impose on others without compensation. For example, a person entering a congested road causes delay to others.

[37]      Submission 88, G. Glazebrook, attachment: Taking the con out of convenience: the true cost of transport modes in Sydney, 2009, section 6. Figures  include RTA road expenditure but not local council road expenditure. Figures include the value of off-street parking (land and structures) but not the value of land occupied by roads.

[38]      LECG 2008:12. LECG 2009:10. Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal 2008:9

[39]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:120

[40]      For example, Dr J. Dodson, Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.44

Chapter 3 - Benefits of public transport

[1]        There are official goals to increase the public transport mode share from 7% to 10.5% in South East Queensland by 2011 (Transport 2007); from 9% to 20% of motorised trips (thus about 15% of all trips) in Melbourne by 2020 (Melbourne 2030); from 7% to 10% of Adelaide's passenger kilometres by 2018 (SA Strategic Plan 2004);  to reduce car-as-driver trips in Perth by one third by 2029 (Perth Metropolitan Transport Strategy 1995-2029); and to increase the proportion of peak hour trips by public transport to 25% in Sydney (A New Direction for NSW - State Plan, 2006).

[2]        UITP, additional information 23 March 2009. P. Moore (UITP) Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.13. In a Western Australian survey 87 per cent of respondents supported 'use road funding to pay for public transport, cycling and walking': Prof. P. Newman, additional information 23 April 2009. See also Public Transport Users Association 2009a:25 for public comment in the preparation of the Melbourne 2030 plan; 'Fix public transport before roads, poll shows', The Age  25/11/2008:1 for an Age/Nielsen poll; RAC Foundation 2009:20.

[3]        Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:52

[4]        Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:52. The 'avoidable cost' of congestion is excess travel time and other resource costs or external costs which traffic suffers in excess of the costs which would be incurred if the traffic had operated at an economically optimal level of congestion. The economically optimal level of congestion is the level at which the cost of further abatement outweighs the benefits. Comparing actual congestion with 'no congestion'  is not useful because 'no congestion' is unachievable in the real world, and it would not be economically rational to try to achieve it in any case (the cost would outweigh the benefits).

[5]        Except for peak hour public transport to city centres, which was assumed to have only 20 per cent spare capacity.

[6]        Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:57,119-120

[7]        Australasian Railway Association 2006:22. 'Five cities': Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth

[8]        For example, Victorian Government 2008a:88. NSW Government 2005:160. This does not mean that no more roads should be built. It means that capacity expansions must consider the effects on the whole traffic system. A congestion point may act as a flowing-constricting valve which improves conditions downstream; if removed, the congestion created downstream may be worse than the congestion removed upstream: Metz 2008:54. See also submission 152, Save Our Suburbs, p.5, for discussion of the Downs-Thomson paradox: road expansion, if it degrades the viability of alternative public transport, may lead to a worse outcome for all travellers (motorists and public transport users). Downs 1992, Mogridge 1990. See SACTRA 1994 and Litman 2009 for discussion of induced traffic.

[9]        Submission 156, Municipal Association of Victoria, p3.  Similarly NSW Government 2005:160:  'The cost of meeting unconstrained travel demands, particularly in peak periods, is becoming prohibitive. Building new capacity just to meet peak needs is very expensive, and as has been demonstrated in other cities, will not solve transport problems or improve accessibility on its own.' In Vancouver, alone among Canadian cities, the average time taken for the journey to work has been declining over the last 15 years as a result of policies to improve public transport and build no new major roads: Dr P. Mees, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.62. Dr J. Stone, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.49.

[10]      Litman 2009:1. This explains why it is found that closing roads often reduces the total traffic level, and rarely increases congestion to the extent that was feared: T. Avramis (People for Public Transport (SA) Inc.), Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.19. See Cairns et. al 2002

[11]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2007:114

[12]      Submission 8, Prof. P. Newman, p.8

[13]      This applies regardless of whether motorists as a group pay the congestion costs that they create as a group (by jointly suffering the congestion). A relevant externality is a cost external to the individual, since that is what affects individuals' choices.

[14]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2002:93ff. Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics 2008:59

[15]      For example, a cordon charge to enter a Central Business District (London, Singapore), or a charge varying with the time of day to use a dedicated lane on a motorway. See Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics 2008.

[16]      To achieve the benefit it is important that the charge targets only congested times and places. A flat rate city-wide or state-wide 'road use charge' is not a congestion charge. Australian Automobile Association 2008:23

[17]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2002:xv. Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics 1996. 

[18]      Council of Australian Governments 2006:12

[19]      For example, submission 58, RACQ, p.9. . M. Roth (RACQ), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.75. Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.21 and submission 108, Roads Australia, p.3 refer to 'road pricing' apparently with the same meaning. The Australian Automobile Association (AAA) supports 'a user charge to address externalities' but this seems to refer to a more general, geographically undiscriminating charge, since the AAA then says 'other measures... should be introduced ahead of introducing a congestion charge.' Submission 127, p.11

[20]      The NSW government has recently ventured into congestion charging in a small way by making the Sydney Harbour Bridge toll higher in peak hours from 27 January 2009.

[21]      Commission for Integrated Transport 2006.

[22]      Submission 58, RACQ, p.10. Similarly P. Moore (UITP), Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.26.

[23]      Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics 2008:v

[24]      Submission 142, C. Mason, p.11. Similarly G. Broadbent (Australian Conservation Foundation), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.3

[25]      Submission 123, WA Department for Planning and Infrastructure, p.2

[26]      See Transportation Research Board 2003 for Brisbane case study. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (2002) reviewed 150 studies, and said: 'Impacts are more easily identified for tram and metro investments than for bus investments.' (p.2) Similarly T. Litman, Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.4,10.

[27]      Car share: a kind of self-service car rental suitable for very short hires. Australia's biggest car share business, GoGet, has 140 vehicles in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Brisbane, mostly in inner suburbs. Cars are stabled in accessible places and members access them using a smart card. Submission 68, GoGet Carshare. C. Mason, Committee Hansard 31 March 2009, p.47

[28]      ABARE 2009:70. Garnaut 2008:509. Apelbaum 2008:10. Alford and Whiteman 2008:6. Australasian Railway Association 2006:49. Estimates appear to allow for actual typical load factors in service, however details are mostly unclear. The estimates in the different sources differ significantly: 'a fifth to half' covers most of the range. PTUA 2009b gives the clearest explanations: it estimates energy consumption in megajoules per passenger-kilometre, including allowance for the energy embodied in making the vehicle, as: train with 400 people - 0.2; tram with 20 people - 0.8; bus with 10 people - 1.4; car with 1.1 people - 4.7.

[29]      The advantage of electric trams and trains is not as great in greenhouse terms as in energy terms if coal-fired electricity is used, as coal fired electricity is more greenhouse intensive than petroleum per unit of energy delivered. According to Garnaut (2008:509) rail and bus have a greenhouse emissions intensity about half as much as cars per passenger kilometre in average conditions.

[30]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2005a:3. Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism 2009:13. ABARE, Australian Commodities, vol. 16 no. 2, p.331. International Energy Agency 2008:40. The current oil price of about $US70 per barrel, though lower than the 2008 peak of $US135 per barrel, this is still higher than the prices of $US25-30 per barrel which subsisted before the present price rises started in 2004.

[31]      Prof. K. Aleklett (ASPO), Committee Hansard 9 June 2009, p.7

[32]      Senate Standing Committee on Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport 2007:40ff

[33]      International Energy Agency 2008:41

[34]      Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism 2009:11,16

[35]      This refers only to fuel used in combustion. The figure would be higher if it took account of the energy embodied in building roads, railways and vehicles: see Lenzen 1999, Public Transport Users Association 2009b.

[36]      Department of Climate Change 2009:6-7. 2007 transport emissions: passenger cars 41.9 Mt CO2e; total 78.8 Mt CO2e.

[37]      This was the general tenor of the Department of Climate Change's evidence to the committee: Ms S. Thompson, Department of Climate Change, Committee Hansard 20 March 2009, p.10ff.

[38]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.21. Submission 130, Environment Victoria, p.4

[39]      Submission 8, Prof. P. Newman, p.8

[40]      As the existing service becomes full extra services must be provided, but providing an extra service for the first overflow passenger still gives an average load factor of at least 50 per cent, which is probably better that most public transport achieves at present as an all-day average.

[41]      Bureau of Transport Economics 2000:xi. Connelly & Supangan 2006. Berry & Harrison 2008:vii. 'Seriously injured': admitted to hospital.

[42]      Assuming that crash costs are proportion to traffic volume. Road deaths and serious injuries are much higher per population in rural areas than in metropolitan areas: Berry and Harrison 2008:28. NSW Centre for Road Safety 2007:32

[43]      Submission 70, Doctors for the Environment Australia, p.2

[44]      Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2005b:ix. Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government 2009:1

[45]      Brindle et al. 1999:27

[46]      Submission 70, Doctors for the Environment Australia, p.3

[47]      Submission 27, Australian Conservation Foundation, p.3, referring to Garden and Jalaludin 2008.

[48]      Submission 70, Doctors for the Environment Australia, p.3

[49]      Submission 70, Doctors for the Environment Australia, p.3

[50]      Submission 13, Public Health Association Australia, p.4. Similarly S. Powrie (Bicycle Institute of South Australia), Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.51

[51]      Submission 142, C. Mason, p.7. Similarly M. Burke (Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia, Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.18. See also Public Health Association, additional information 26 March 2009. Wen & Rissel 2007. Bassett et al. 2008. Lachappelle & Frank 2009.

[52]      For example submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p.6. Submission 114, Metropolitan Transport forum, p.4. Submission 123, WA Dept for Planning and Infrastructure, p.1. See also Currie (2007).

[53]      Australia-wide the proportion of people of driving age with a licence is about 63% for under 20s, rises to 95% for age 40-49, and falls to 61% for over 70s. Figures for men and women are similar except that among over 70s 75% of men and 50% of women are licence holders (2003 information). About 9 per cent of dwellings have no motor vehicle. Austroads 2005a:37, ABS 2006 census. 'About 45% of Perth's population does not have ready access to a private car': submission 123, WA Dept for Planning and Infrastructure, p.1

[54]      Submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p.6. Hurni 2006:2,6. 'Transport disadvantaged' was defined as living more than 800m from the nearest bus service that runs half hourly or better during the day, without regard to where the bus runs to.

[55]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.2

[56]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.5. Similarly submission 114, Metropolitan Transport Forum, p4. N. Sipe & J. Dodson, Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.38ff

[57]      Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.41. Submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p15

[58]      Dodson and Sipe 2008. N. Sipe & J. Dodson, Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.38ff

[59]      Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.41

[60]      For example submission 4, Alexandrina Council. Submission 47 Fleurieu Regional Development. Submission 155, Municipal Association of Victoria, p.11. K. Owen & S. Holcombe (Municipal Association of Victoria),  Committee Hansard 20 July 2009, p.2ff

Chapter 4 - Improving public transport

[1]        In greenfields development areas routes are typically planned having regard to government guidelines about the maximum walking distance from a bus stop.

[2]        Mees 2000:238

[3]        Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.6. K. Dobinson (10,000 friends of Greater Sydney, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.44. Prof. J. Stanley, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.67. G. Davis, Committee Hansard 20 July 2009, p.40. The threshold of 'forget the timetable' travel is commonly said to be a frequency of 12 minutes: for example TRL 2004:71, Mulley 2009:23

[4]        D. Mellish (BusNSW), Committee Hansard  6 March 2009, p.25. Heavy rail services being already congestion-free, to increase their speed much would require very costly investment in straightening alignments and rationalising junctions.

[5]        Excess waiting time from unreliable service has a far greater perceived detrimental value than normal waiting time: TRL 2004:90.

[6]        T. Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute), Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.4-5. A survey of Sydney car commuters found that comfort and convenience factors (primarily 'vehicle faster') were very important, and cost factors were not important in forming their decision to use the car. Transport Data Centre 2008:13

[7]        That is, the elasticity of demand with respect to frequency is less than 1. Mees 2000:85. TRL 2004:19

[8]        For example, from 6.30-9.30am weekdays, trips to the Sydney CBD are about 5 per cent of all trips in the Sydney region. G. Corpuz, NSW Transport Data Centre, pers. comm July 2009

[9]        For example submission 136, Public Transport Users Association. Submission 143, J. Scheurer. Dr G. Glazebrook, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.50. Scheurer et al. 2005:23. Mulley 2009:27. Where the network is simple and service at 'forget the timetable' frequency is not affordable (for example, in regional centres), a 'pulse timetable' can be used to facilitate transfers: all buses meet at a central point at the same time in each cycle, wait a few minutes for transfers, then continue. P. Mees, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.53

[10]      For example see submission 143, J. Scheurer, for suggestions for a better regional bus network in north east Melbourne. Similarly submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.19

[11]      A few of Melbourne's tram routes have a cross suburban function. Cross suburban through city trips by rail may be important.

[12]      Submission 7, Prof. D. Hensher, attachment: 'Frequency and Connectivity: Key Drivers of Reform in Urban Public Transport Provision', Journeys, Nov. 2008, p.26-27. Similarly J. Scheurer, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.41. See submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.5 for the  mathematics of the network effect: completing the network may win new patronage far in excess of what would be predicted by normal elasticity of demand, because it makes already existing services usable by far more people.

[13]      Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.12. Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.30. Mees 2000:178. Access to rail stations is - in Melbourne: 61% by walking and cycling, 9% by bus 'in the early 1990s'; in Toronto: 20% by walking and cycling, 76% by bus: Scheurer et al 2005:8. See also submission 138, Bicycle Network, p.5, which gives a figures of 20% of Melbourne train riders accessing the station by bus.

[14]      Similarly they do not mention, and their network maps do not show, the many private bus routes that overlap their territories. Both websites (Cityrail and Sydney Buses) do link to a separate 'Transport Info' trip planner which covers almost all metropolitan bus and rail services, however they do not alert readers to the fact the the trip planner includes services other than their own. Sydney Buses links to Cityrail under a menu option described opaquely as 'useful links'.

[15]      Submission 34, Prof. G Currie, p.9

[16]      Dr J. Stone, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.47. Scheurer et al. 2005:23

[17]      Submission 43, P. Flanagan, p.4

[18]      Mulley 2009:34

[19]      Submission 191, Brisbane City Council, p.24. Brisbane City Council, additional information 3 March 2009. Blake 2009:21. Other factors may have contributed, including an effective fare cut and service improvements about the same time: Cr J. Prentice (Brisbane City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.8,10. Streeting and Barlow 2007.

[20]      S. Powrie (Bicycle Institute of South Australia), Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.51. Similarly S. Lennon (Pricewaterhouse Coopers), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.55.

[21]      Submission 138, Bicycle Network. Mr H. Barber, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.11ff. 40 per cent of trips in Melbourne are less than 2km long: submission 130, Environment Victoria, p.5. Similarly M. Burke (Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.17. Similarly P. Strang (Bicycle Federation of Australia), Committee Hansard 19 March 2009. p.41

[22]      Submission 76, Cycling Promotion Fund, p.24,38,39. Submission 115, Environment House Inc, p.5. Similarly M. Burke (Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.25.

[23]      Mr H. Barber (Bicycle Victoria), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.18. Similarly Dr E. Hanna (Public Health Association), Committee Hansard 20 March 2009, p.4. H. Webster (Fleurieu Regional Development), Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.4

[24]      Submission 13, Public Health Association Australia, p.6

[25]      Cr J. Prentice (Brisbane City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.13-14

[26]      Austroads, The Australian National Cycling Strategy 2005-2010, 2005, p.4 and pp 14-15.

[27]      For example, submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.64.

[28]      Submission 142, Dr C. Mason, p.5

[29]      Infrastructure Australia 2008:45

[30]      For example submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p.2. Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.30. S. Lennon (Pricewaterhouse Coopers), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.57. Dr J. Dodson, Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.41,46. D. Mellish (BusNSW), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.27.

[31]      The Translink Transit Authority: see http://www.translink.com.au/aboutus.php

[32]      Dr P. Mees, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.55-6. Similarly Dr J. Stone, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.40,47; Dr. Bowen (Public Transport Users Association), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.21

[33]      Scheurer 2005:29.

[34]      Dr P. Mees, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.56

[35]      For example submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.26. Dr J. Stone, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.39,46.

[36]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.16

[37]      Submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p.1

[38]      Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.13

[39]      For example submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.16. Submission 13, Metropolitan Transport Forum, p6. D. Bowen (Public Transport Users Association), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.26. Similarly S. Holliday (Planning Institute of Australia), Committee Hansard 20 March 2009, p.22-23; B. Nye (Australasian Railway Association), Committee Hansard 20 March 2009, p.39; Prof. D. Hensher, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.31.

[40]      Submission 30, B. Griffin, p.1

[41]      For example, NSW Government 2005:81.120,156. Victorian Government 2008b:3

[42]      For example submission 26, Campbelltown and District Commuters Association, p.4. D. Mellish (BusNSW), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.25. S. Fingland (Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.64. D. Smith (Davis Bus Lines), Committee Hansard 20 July 2009, p.33. Submission 8, Prof. P. Newman, p.15. Submission 53, Council of Mayors SEQ, p.14. Submission 98, ACEA, p.8. NSW Government 2005:81,155. Victorian Government 2008b:9,17. Government of Western Australia 2009:2. Queensland Government 2009:140. For an overview of transit oriented development see for example http://www.patrec.org/conferences/TODJuly2005/TODJuly2005.html which is the papers of a 2005 conference by the Western Australia Planning and Transport Research Centre (PATREC).

[43]      For example Victorian Government 2008b:3; NSW Government 2005:123,134; Queensland Government 2009:90; Government of Western Australia 2009:2

[44]      For example see Troy 1996. For an example of residents opposition see Save Our Suburbs (NSW) at http://www.sos.org.au/new_home.html  See discussion in House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage, Sustainable Cities,  2005:43.

[45]      For example submission 58, RACQ, p.4

[46]      Infrastructure Australia 2008:45

[47]      Long term plans for rail expansion in Brisbane are also under study: Hon. R. Nolan, Minister for Transport, Cross river rail key to city's transport future, media release 12 May 2009. See Queensland Transport 2008.

[48]      Hon. A. Albanese, Minister for Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government, Budget provides historic investment in rail, media release 12 May 2009

[49]      'Bus rapid transit': high quality congestion-free bus services. Details vary: for example Brisbane and Adelaide (O-bahn) have completely grade separated bus roads. In Curitiba and Bogota (the most cited examples) buses use segregated median lanes on arterial roads. Sydney has separate bus roads without grade separation, with significant on-street running in central areas: Parramatta-Liverpool T-way and north west T-way. See Currie 2009 for an overview.

[50]      This refers to busways designed for kerbside boarding. Systems with high, level boarding (for example Curitiba and Bogota) need a platform at every stop.

[51]      Light rail will become relatively more economical at higher loads because of the ability to run fewer, longer vehicles: K. Warrell, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.57

[52]      For example M. Roth (RACQ), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.77. Prof. D. Hensher, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.34. K. Warrell, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.56. M. Apps (Bus Industry Confederation), Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.37. R. Waldock (Public Transport Authority of WA), Committee Hansard 23 March 2009, p.6. Prof. G. Currie, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.37. Mr Litman argued that 'rail transit has a more long term leverage effect [on property values]':Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.4

[53]      Some commentators question whether the benefits justify the high cost, or suggest that priority should be given to upgrading the railways that already exist nearby: submission 58, RACQ, p.4 & Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.77. Mees 1997; Dodson & Sipe 2006:43; RACQ 2008:12. See also Queensland Parliament Public Works Committee, reports 39 and 42, 1997. Brisbane busways complete, under construction or committed have/will cost about $2.9 billion (south east 2001: $599 million; inner north 2008: $466 million; Boggo Rd 2009: $226 million; eastern stage 1: $140 million; eastern stage 2 to Coorparoo: $465 million; northern stages 1 & 2 to Kedron: $777 million; south east Springwood extension $230 million. Extensions east to Capalaba and north to Bracken Ridge are proposed. ('Busways' at www.transport.qld.gov.au accessed 5 August 2009; Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, additional information 11 August 2009)

[54]      W. Rowe (Gold Coast City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.65. Mickel 2008. Blake 2009:23.

[55]      A further issue for both modes (but in practice, more for busways) is that public transport using freeway easements, though it may serve long distance commuters well, is not well suited to serving transfer trips over the whole network, since freeways tend to skirt around the activity centres or arterial road junctions which are the logical interchange points. Mees 2000:75.

[56]      For example Prof. G Currie, submission 34, p.9. D. Mellish (BusNSW), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.25.

[57]      Public private partnerships in transport have been used mostly for tollroads. They may also be used for airspace developments. Prof. P. Newman, Committee Hansard 23 March 2009, p.38

[58]      Infrastructure Australia 2008:72ff

[59]      'Agglomeration benefits': positive externalities created by firms colocating with a certain density. See discussion in Infrastructure Australia, Outline of Infrastructure Australia's prioritisation methodology, September 2008, p.12. Including agglomeration benefits in cost-benefit analysis will tend to favour public transport in comparison with road projects, as public transport can better serve the needed density of activity. Prof. P. Newman, Committee Hansard 23 March 2009, p.44-45. Prof. G. Currie, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.33.

[60]      Submission 111, Northern Rivers Social Development Council, p.5

[61]      Submission 47, Fleurieu Regional Development, Similarly submissions 4, Alexandrina Council, 46, City of Victor Harbor Council, 105 Wellington Shire Council, 118 East Gippsland Shire Council, 119 Light Regional Council

[62]      Submission 24, Tuross Head Progress Association, p.1

[63]      Submission 111, Northern Rivers Social Development Council, p.5. Similarly submission 119, Light Regional Council, p.3, referring to the Barossa Valley.

[64]      K. Kolbe (TOOT), Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.14

[65]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.25

[66]      For example, NSW Community Transport Program.

[67]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.26. See also submission 187, Community Transport Organisation.

[68]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.26

[69]      Submission 155, Municipal Association of Victoria, p.13. S. Holcombe (MAVV), Committee Hansard 20 July 2009, p.5

[70]      Submission 40, P. Mackenzie, p.5. Submission 105, Wellington Shire Council, p.5. Submission 155, Municipal Association of Victoria, p.13

[71]      Submission 134, Western Australia Local Government Association, p.5-6. Similarly J. Cherry (Council of Mayors South East Queensland), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.54. W. Rowe (Gold Coast City Council), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.67ff 

[72]      Submission 24, Tuross Head Progress Association, p.1. Similarly Cr L. Rosenberg, Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.17. M. Apps (Bus Industry Confederation), Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.35.

[73]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.26

[74]      Submission 99, Australian Taxi Industry Association, p10

[75]      Submission 187, Community Transport Organisation, p.4ff: 'Specialist Community Transport operations catering specifically and exclusively to the needs of the frail, aged and disabled and their carers came into existence in large part because of a notable incapacity and unwillingness of mainstream public transport operators – especially taxi drivers – to consistently empathise with and meet the higher care needs of vulnerable passengers.'

[76]      Submission 71, Julia Farr Association. A. Fidock & L. Hallahan (Julia Farr Association), Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.26ff

[77]      For example, if car and public transport trips are now in the ratio 9 to 1, and 10 per cent of car trips become public transport trips, this would almost double public transport use.

Chapter 5 - The role of the Australian Government

[1]        Submission 77, National Transport Commission, p.2

[2]        Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government, additional information 30 July 2009.  Department of Transport, Evaluation of the Urban Public Transport Program, April 1995. The biggest projects were Shellharbour electrification, Riverstone-Richmond electrification, Kuraby-Beenleigh duplication, and 22 Sprinter trains for Victoria.

[3]        Collins et al. 1995:78. Hon. J. Sharp, Minister for Transport and Regional Development, Regional development, media release 17 July 1996. Australian National Audit Office 1996.

[4]        Collins et al. 1995:78.

[5]        Submissions 123 & 186, WA Department for Planning and Infrastructure, C. Ashton-Graham (WA Department of Planning and Infrastructure), Committee Hansard 23 March 2009, p.16. Department of Environment and Heritage 2005:5. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008:7.

[6]        Kemp 2003. Maunsell 2008:7

[7]        Submission 186, WA Department for Planning and Infrastructure, p.16. C. Ashton-Graham (WA Department for Planning and Infrastructure), Committee Hansard 23 March 2009, p.21

[8]        Department of Transport and Regional Services 2004:9. Similarly submission 52, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government, p.1

[9]        'Major Cities Unit' at http://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/mcu.aspx accessed 30 July 2009. Infrastructure Australia is a statutory authority established by the Infrastructure Australia Act 2008 to advise government on infrastructure needs and priorities. It does not itself make funding decisions, which remain with government.

[10]      For example submission 27, Australian Conservation Foundation. Submission 155, Municipal Association of Victoria, p.16. M. Roth (RACQ), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.74-5. Cr C. Moore (Sydney City Council), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.12. Prof. D, Hensher, Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.31. B. Nye (Australasian Railway Association), Committee Hansard 20 March 2009, p.39. M. Paterson (Veolia Transport Australasia), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.64. K. Petersen (Tourism and Transport Forum), Committee Hansard 31 March 2009, p.24

[11]      Submission 77, National Transport Commission, p.2

[12]      Submission 67, Western Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, p.20. Similarly S. Holliday (Planning Institute of Australia), Committee Hansard  20 March 2009, p.21-22.

[13]      T. Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute), Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.6

[14]      Dr J. Stone, Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.49. Australian Government contributions or commitments to recent or planned major urban roads have included Sydney's M7 ($356 million), Brisbane's Ipswich Motorway ($2.5 billion) and proposed Northern Link ($500 million), Melbourne's Western Ring Road ($900 million) and Adelaide's Northern Expressway ($451 million) and South Road upgrade ($500 million).

[15]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.5

[16]      For example, submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.33. Submission 34, G. Currie, p.5. Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.65. Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, attachment, p.14

[17]      SAFETEA-LU: Safe Accountable Flexible Efficient Transportation Equity Act - A Legacy for Users. Total SAFETEA-LU funding includes roads is $ 244 billion: see http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/summary.htm accessed 7 August 2009. US Federal transport funding has generally been about 80 per cent to roads, 20 per cent to public transport: T. Litman, Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.5

[18]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.6

[19]      Submission 77, National Transport Commission, p.3

[20]      Australian Transport Council communiques 29 February 2008, 7 November 2008, 22 May 2009

[21]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.7-8

[22]      Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.7-8 & Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.29

[23]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.39

[24]      Submission 77, National Transport Commission, attachment 1, National Transport Policy Framework - a new beginning, February 2008, p.19

[25]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.40

[26]      Australian Transport Council, communique 2 May 2008, p.5

[27]      A detailed discussion is in submission 77, National Transport Commission, attachment 2, National Transport Policy Framework - a new beginning , vol.2 February 2008, p.89ff. The Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics (BITRE) is a work group within the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government. Its focus is on statistics and higher level economic analysis. Austroads is the association of Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic authorities (with the Australian Local Government Association (ALGA)). It publishes detailed guidelines and reports on technical matters (mostly written by ARRB). ARRB Group Ltd is a non-profit company owned by the Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic authorities (with ALGA). It does publicly funded research, competitive research and consulting, and publishes Road and Transport Research Journal.

[28]      Submission 127, Australian Automobile Association, p.11

[29]      For example submission 27, Australian Conservation Foundation, p.7. Submission 63, Bus NSW, p.2.  Submission 91, Blue Mountains Commuter and Transport Users Association, p.5

[30]      For example submission 56, Local Government Association of Queensland, p.4. Submission 134, Western Australia Local Government Association, p.14. Submission 136, Public Transport Users Association, p.27. J. Fristacky (Metropolitan Transport Forum), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.81. Roads to Recovery funds local councils on a lump sum basis according to a formula to help them with local roadworks. $1.75 billion will be provided over five years from 1 July 2009. 'Roads to Recovery' at http://www.nationbuildingprogram.gov.au/funding/r2r/index.aspx accessed 31 July 2009

[31]      Mr T. Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute), Committee Hansard 31 July 2009, p.5

[32]      Submission 6, D. Kilsby, p14. Submission 63, Bus NSW, p.3. Dr M. Burke (Pedestrian and Bicycle Transport Institute of Australasia), Committee Hansard 3 March 2009, p.19

[33]      Submission 186, WA Department for Planning and Infrastructure, p.16

[34]      Submission 88, Dr. G. Glazebrook, p.2. Similarly submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.16. M. Lockwood (Council of Capital City Lord Mayors, Committee Hansard 19 March 2009, p.9

[35]      S. Lennon (Pricewaterhouse Coopers), Committee Hansard 6 March 2009, p.53

[36]      Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.11

[37]      Infrastructure Australia 2008:45

[38]      For example submission 2, Blue Mountains Sustainable Transport Alliance, p.4. Submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation, p.37. Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.58ff.

[39]      Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.59

[40]      Council of Australian Governments 2006:59. For other examples see Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2002:22-3;  Ernst & Young 2006:22ff

[41]      Ernst & Young 2006:1

[42]      M. Jacobs (Department of the Treasury), Committee Hansard, 18 August 2006, p.30 (inquiry into Australia's future oil supply and alternative transport fuels).

[43]      As living standards increase over time it should be expected that quality becomes relatively more important than price. A survey of Sydney car commuters found that comfort and convenience factors (primarily 'vehicle faster') were very important, and cost factors were not important in forming their decision to use the car. Transport Data Centre 2008:13. See also TRL 2004:15ff

[44]      For example submission 58, RACQ; submission 77, National Transport Commission, attachment, National Transport Policy Framework - A new beginning, 2008, p.45; submission 33, Bus Industry Confederation; submission 87, Australasian Railway Association. M. Paterson (Veolia Transport Australasia), Committee Hansard 30 March 2009, p.45. K. Petersen (Tourism and Transport Forum), Committee Hansard 31 March 2009, p.24, H. Webster (Fleurieu Regional Development) Committee Hansard 23 July 2009, p.7.

[45]      See Appendix 4, Treasury's answers to questions.

[46]      Treasury, Tax Expenditure Statement 2008, p.163

[47]      See Appendix 4, Treasury's answers to questions. FCAI, submission to the review of Australia's tax system, March 2009, p.3. In Treasury's figures, the time series of cars involved contains enormous fluctuations which, compared with the time series of employers involved, are not believable. The committee understands that this may be because of taxpayers' mistakes in filling in FBT returns: a few big mistakes (for example, putting the taxable value in the 'number of cars' cell) could completely corrupt the total.  The 'number of cars' field, being for information only, is not checked for accuracy except in the case of an individual audit.

          Figures in the 50,000s for the number of cars involved, which are sometimes seen in comment on this issue, are a mistaken reference to the number of employers involved.

[48]      Treasury, Tax Expenditures Statement 2008, p12

[49]      This seems to be generally accepted (for example Kraal 2008:193; Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia 2006:19); however the committee could not find any policy statement from the time to confirm it. See Appendix 4, Treasury's answers to questions.

[50]      2007 sales of passenger motor vehicles, local/ imported/ total, were: private - 35,948/ 316,089/ 352,037; fleet government - 30,721/ 13,896/ 44,617; fleet non-government - 90,593/ 149,772/ 240,365; total - 157,262/ 479,757/ 637,019. Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research, Key Automotive Statistics 2007. Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries, VFACTS. 

[51]      Ralph 1999:224. Submissions to the current Australia's Future Tax System Review have the same implication: see Toyota Finance Australia Ltd, submission 17/10/2008:3;  Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries, submission 26/03/2009:7; Motor Trades Association of Australia, submission 1/5/2009:4. Similarly Toyota, submission 80 to the Bracks Review of the Automotive Industry, 2008, p.36.

[52]      See Appendix 4.  The answer was: 'The policy of the FBT statutory formula for valuing car benefits is set out in chapter 13 of the Australia's Tax System Review Consultation Paper of December 2008.' The only relevant comment in chapter 13 of the consultation paper is: 'The statutory formula method for valuing car fringe benefits applies a declining taxable value the further the car is driven in a year. The original purpose of this policy was to apply tax to the private use of the vehicle, not its use for work purposes, and distance travelled was used as a proxy for the proportion of business travel. The value of the car for FBT purposes is its cost multiplied by a ‘statutory fraction’ which depends on how far the car is driven in the relevant tax year. The statutory fraction, and hence the taxable value of the car benefit, reduces as the number of kilometres driven increases...  This valuation formula has two main impacts on incentives. It reduces the overall cost of car ownership and provides employees with an incentive to drive additional kilometres to reduce the amount of FBT payable. These incentives indirectly encourage increased greenhouse gas emissions, pollution and congestion through increased car use.' (p251)

          Note that whether the tax should be concessionary, and whether there should be a statutory formula for the sake of easy compliance, are different questions, since a statutory formula could be retained but the concessionary aspect removed by adjusting the rates.

[53]      Productivity Commission, Trade and Assistance Review 2007-08, 2009, p.16-19,164.

[54]      Hon K. Carr (Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research), A New Car Plan for a Greener Future, media release 10 November 2008.

[55]      'Assistance will be progressively phased down over the period'. Ausindustry, Automotive Transformation Scheme (ATS) - fact sheet, n.d.

[56]      'At least $10,000': 2007-08 tax expenditure $1,700 million divided by 157,262 Australian sales of Australian-made cars, (DIISR, Key Automotive Statistics 2007), gives notionally $10,810 per sale. However many of these sales would be unaffected by removing the concession. The effectiveness of a subsidy which aims to change consumer behaviour must be judged in relation to the number of consumers whose behaviour is actually changed.

          The tax concession relates to all the cars in use, not just the year's sales. The comment treats the flow of subsidy to each car over its life as equivalent to a lump sum at the time of purchase. This is valid if the average life of a car, thus the ratio of stock to sales, is stable over time.

[57]      For example, Industry Commission 1997:131. Ralph 1999:224.  Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics 2002:22.  House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage 2005:77. Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia 2006:20.  Ernst and Young 2006:1 (NSW submitted this report to the October 2006 meeting of the Australian Transport Council where 'ministers discussed a report provided by NSW and agreed to forward to the Council of Treasurers.' Australian Transport Council, joint communique, 13 October 2006). Senate Standing Committee on Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport 2007:163. Victorian Government, response to VCEC's report on managing transport congestion, March 2007, pp.15. Taxpayers Australia and Taxation Institute of Australia: Australian Financial Review, 9 January 2008, p.7. Bracks 2008:68ff

[58]      Garnaut 2008:527

[59]      The Australia's Future Tax System Review Panel [Henry tax review], Australia's Future Tax System Consultation Paper, December 2008, p90

[60]      Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research 2008:21

[61]      Kraal 2008:202. The estimate of excess private driving was made by comparing the distribution of distances driven by the sampled cars (which showed a bunching of cars just above each threshold distance) with what would have been the result if there had been no bunching.

[62]      For example, SG Fleet (submission 67 to the Bracks Review) suggested 10 distance bands with a gradually declining statutory percentage. The Australian Fleet Managers Association (submission 95 to the Bracks Review) suggested a flat 15% statutory percentage.

[63]      Council of Australian Governments 2006:60

[64]      Transport Data Centre 2008:13

[65]      Council of Australian Governments 2006:60, referring to NSW Transport and Population Data Centre (2006), 2001 Household Travel Survey: Average Weekday Vehicle Driver Trips by Time of Day and Car Ownership, unpublished data.

[66]      Three per cent of employees received assistance in the form of the employer paying public transport fares. Corpuz 2006:8.

[67]      For example, Submission 87, Australasian Railway Association, p.58

[68]      Australia is bound by the 1994 WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures.

[69]      There are of course valid environmental concerns about the energy and resources embodied in manufacturing, but this applies equally to all consumer goods.

[70]      For example, Mr M. Jacobs (Treasury), Committee Hansard 18 August 2006, p.29 (inquiry into Australia's future oil supply and alternative transport fuels).

[71]      FCAI submission to review of Australia's future tax system, 26/3/2009, p.7

[72]      Except in the case of the employees of a transport operator: Treasury, Tax Expenditures Statement 2008, p57,159

[73]      Treasury, Tax Expenditures Statement 2008, p166. Australian Tax Office, Fringe Benefits Tax - a guide for employers. The main condition for the existence of a taxable benefit is that there is a commercial parking station within one kilometre.

[74]      Treasury, Tax Expenditures Statement 2008, p163.

[75]      Treasury, Tax Expenditures Statement 2008, p57,169.

[76]      See Appendix 4, Treasury's answers to questions.

Additional Comments - Australian Greens

[1] Submission 34, Prof. G. Currie, p.5

[2] House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage, Sustainable Cities, August 2005 and Senate Standing Committee on Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport, Australia's future oil supply and alternative transport fuels, February 2007.

[3] Evaluation of Travelsmart projects in Western Australia found a community benefit of $30 for every $1 invested.