Developments in Australian fuel quality and vehicle emissions standards: a chronology

14 July 2022

PDF version [513 KB]

Dr Emily Gibson
Science, Technology, Environment and Resources

The transport sector’s contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution
Overview of regulatory framework
The broader context: decarbonisation of the transport sector and greater fuel security

Chronology
Glossary of key fuel parameters and other terms
Acknowledgements

Introduction

This chronology outlines developments in the regulatory framework for fuel quality, in-service emissions and fuel efficiency standards in Australia, principally over the last two decades to 2021. Prior to this, fuel quality was ‘largely unregulated’.^{^[1]} Standards Australia had developed AS 1876–1976 Petrol (Gasoline) for motor vehicles and AS 3570–1988 Automotive diesel fuel; however, these standards had no legislative basis and did not address significant emissions management issues. Similarly, Australian Design Rules (ADRs) addressing vehicle emissions were not—at that time—legislative instruments.^{^[2]}

The transport sector’s contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution

The transport sector contributed 18.1% of Australia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2021[3], mostly through road transport.[4] As at 31 January 2021, there were 20.1 million registered motor vehicles in Australia.[5] Emissions from the whole sector have risen by over 50% since 1990, due to factors such as population growth, larger vehicles, increased freight movements and more flights.[6]

In addition to releasing GHG due to the combustion of fossil fuels, vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICEs) emit other noxious substances which contribute to harmful air pollution. By adopting more stringent vehicle emission standards countries could ‘achieve up to a 99 percent reduction’ in the emitted pollutants that can cause ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, stroke, and asthma.[7] While not all air pollution is attributable to transport, data compiled for the Global Burden of Disease Study indicated that in 2019 an estimated 1,910 deaths (63% higher than national road deaths) and 41,400 disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) were attributable to air pollution in Australia.^{^[8]} Recent studies have indicated reducing transport sector air pollution could save billions of dollars in avoided health costs.[9]

Overview of regulatory framework

Australia’s regulatory framework for fuel quality and vehicle emission standards has been in place for several decades. However, Australian standards have consistently trailed behind other advanced economies such as the European Union (EU), Japan and the United States of America (USA). For example, in 2020 Australia ranked 85th in the ‘Top 100’ world rankings for petrol quality (based on the mandated standard for sulfur content) and had the second-lowest ranking of all OECD countries, after Colombia.[10] Similarly, while nearly 90% of new light-duty and 80% of new heavy-duty global vehicle sales are covered by fuel economy (carbon dioxide emission) standards,[11] Australia does not have an equivalent standard.

Three interrelated factors are relevant to the consideration of fuel quality and vehicle emissions standards in Australia.

Fuel quality standards. These establish the chemical parameters, such as sulfur and aromatics content, that different types of fuel must meet. Australia has established quality standards for fuels such as petrol, automotive diesel, biodiesel and Ethanol E85—enabled under the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000.

Currently, Australia’s standards for sulfur in petrol and Ethanol E85 are not aligned with world’s best-practice. For example, the EU has had a maximum sulfur content in petrol of 10 mg/kg since January 2009;[12] while Australia’s current standard permits a maximum of 150 mg/kg of sulfur in standard unleaded petrol, 50 mg/kg in premium unleaded petrol, and 52 mg/kg in Ethanol E85 fuel until 30 June 2027.[13]In May 2021 the Australian Government announced an intention to bring forward the introduction of low-sulfur fuels from 2027 to 2024.[14] Responsibility for regulating fuel quality transferred from the Department of the Environment and Energy to the Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources on 1 February 2020 and returned to the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water on 1 July 2022.

Vehicle emissions standards. Vehicle tailpipe or noxious emission standards set the in-service emission control requirements for pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate emissions—these are made under the Road Vehicle Standards Act 2018.

The engine and emissions control technologies that can be fitted to new vehicles for the Australian market are affected by Australia’s fuel quality. Some vehicles designed to meet more stringent vehicle emission standards in other jurisdictions are detuned before being imported.[15] Australia’s current vehicle emission standards are aligned with Euro 5 and Euro V standards for light and heavy vehicles respectively (referred to collectively as Euro 5/V).[16]

Euro 5 standards became mandatory in the EU from September 2009 for new vehicles and January 2011 for all vehicles, with Euro V mandatory from October 2008. These were replaced by Euro 6 standards for new vehicles from September 2014 and all vehicles from September 2015, with Euro VI mandatory from January 2013.[17] Several components of the Euro 6/VI standards have been progressively strengthened over the following years.[18] Equivalent standards apply in other developed countries such as Japan and the United States.[19] The European Commission is considering the introduction of more stringent Euro 7 and Euro VII vehicle emission standards. The Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions was established in 2015 to coordinate a whole-of-government approach to addressing emissions from road vehicles.^{^[20]} Responsibility for regulating vehicle emission standards commenced with the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts on 1 July 2011.[21]

Vehicle efficiency standards. Vehicle carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions intensity is used as a measure of vehicle efficiency; emissions intensity per kilometre is directly related to vehicle fuel consumption values.[22] Australia is one of the few major economies without mandatory standards for fuel efficiency. Instead, it only requires that fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions information is provided to consumers at the point-of-sale.

The EU first introduced CO₂ vehicle fleet emissions targets in 2009, with more stringent targets introduced in 2019.^{^[23]} The EU targets are 95 gCO₂/km (grams of carbon dioxide per kilometre) for cars and 147 gCO₂/km for light commercial vehicles by 2025.[24] Reporting under the EU regulatory framework, with includes the EU, Iceland, Norway and the United Kingdom (UK), indicates that average CO₂ emissions from passenger cars and light commercial vehicles were 107.8 gCO₂/km and 157.7 gCO₂/km respectively in 2020.^{^[25]} The EU is considering further reducing these targets even further, in line with ambitious economy-wide benchmarks.[26]

In contrast, the Australian Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries (FCAI) introduced a voluntary CO₂ emissions standard in 2020. It’s baseline report showed that CO₂ emissions from vehicles in Australia are approximately 32% higher than in Europe.^{^[27]}

The broader context: decarbonisation of the transport sector and greater fuel security

The lag in Australia’s regulated fuel quality and vehicle emission standards, and absence of vehicle efficiency standards, is reportedly delaying the introduction of ‘cleaner’ ICE vehicles and electric vehicles (EVs).[28] At the same time, manufacturers are directing more efficient ICE vehicles and EVs towards countries with supportive policies for ambitious carbon dioxide reduction. such policies include:

more stringent emissions requirements and potential financial penalties for failing to meet them,
phase-outs of the sale of new ICE vehicles, and
financial incentives to support the uptake of EVs in some jurisdictions.[29]

Many consumer- and environment-focused stakeholder groups and policy analysts have called for more ambitious and comprehensive actions to decarbonise Australia’s economy, including in the transport sector.[30] Australian fuel refiners have argued that Australia’s fuel standards are designed for ‘Australian conditions’, noting different market and climatic conditions and differences in permitted fuel additives compared to northern hemisphere jurisdictions.[31] Refiners have also pointed out that the average sulfur content in petrol is already below the regulated standard (although above EU standards).[32]

The need to decarbonise the transport sector has also been highlighted in the context of Australia’s increasing reliance on imported fuel and the impact of international conflicts on domestic fuel prices.[33] The number of fuel refineries in Australia has declined from eight to two over the last two decades and Australia has, in the last decade, fallen short of the International Energy Agency’s oil stockholding requirements.[34] Energy and security analysts argue that this is a national security issue, and recommend increasing fuel standards to promote efficiency, alternative fuel development (e.g. hydrogen and biofuels), and transport sector electrification.[35]

Chronology

Milestones	Details	Source documents
June–August 1989	Australia’s national legislative framework for motor vehicle standards established The MVS Act aims to: achieve uniform vehicle standards to apply to new vehicles when they begin to be used in transport in Australia and regulate the first supply to the market of used imported vehicles.[36] Subsection (b) was added by an amendment in 2001.[37]	Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989 (MVS Act) Motor Vehicle Standards Regulations 1989
May 1996	National In-service Emission Study released The study finds that: exhaust pollution levels from cars increase with age and kilometres travelled modern cars that rely heavily on ‘active’ systems to control pollution levels (catalytic converters, on-board computers and sensors, etc) tend to deteriorate at a greater rate than older pre-catalyst vehicles, whose emissions levels were more dependent on intrinsic design features evaporative emissions levels were found to be many times the maximum permitted ADR levels in a substantial number of vehicles substantial reductions in pollution levels can be achieved through good maintenance practice.[38]	Federal Office of Road Safety, Motor vehicle pollution in Australia—report on the National In-Service Vehicle Emissions Study, May 1996
1998	Worldwide Fuel Charter established The charter was established to ‘increase understanding of the fuel quality needs of motor vehicle and engine technologies and to promote fuel quality harmonisation worldwide in accordance with those needs’.[39] The charter sets out fuel quality standards for unleaded petrol and diesel for different categories, based emission control and fuel efficiency requirements in different markets. Charter members include vehicle manufacturers and automobile associations.	Worldwide Fuel Charter Committee, Worldwide Fuel Charter, Fifth Edition, September 2013
May 1999	Federal Government makes commitment to improving the quality of petrol and diesel fuels in Australia The commitments, as part of A New Tax System – Measures for a Better Environment, include reducing sulfur content levels in diesel fuel, changes in the sulfur content and octane composition of petrol, and introducing more stringent vehicle emission standards.	J Howard (Prime Minister), Changes to the Goods and services tax (GST), media release, May 1999 Revised Explanatory Memorandum, Fuel Quality Standards Bill 2000, September 2000
December 2000–January 2002	Australia’s legislative framework for fuel quality standards established The FQS Act aims to: regulate the quality of fuel supplied in Australia in order to: reduce the level of pollutants and emissions arising from the use of fuel that may cause environmental and health problems; and facilitate the adoption of better engine technology and emission control technology; and allow the more effective operation of engines; and ensure that, where appropriate, information about fuel is provided when the fuel is supplied.[40] Subsection (b) was added by an amendment in 2003.[41]	Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 (FQS Act) Fuel Quality Standards Regulations 2001
December 2001	National Environment Protection Measure to reduce diesel exhaust emissions introduced The National Environment Protection Council introduces a measure to reduce exhaust emissions from diesel vehicles through increased compliance with in-service emissions standards The measure responds to the National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure, which provides national air quality standards for six criteria pollutants—with diesel vehicles a major source of two of these (PM10 and nitrogen dioxide).	National Environment Protection (Diesel Vehicle Emissions) Measure 2001
August 2001—July 2004	Initial Fuel Quality Determinations made The Petrol Determination set the maximum sulfur content as 500 mg/kg for regular unleaded petrol and 150 mg/kg for premium unleaded petrol from commencement, with a maximum sulfur content of 150 mg/kg for all grades from 1 January 2005. An amendment in July 2004 reduced the maximum sulfur content for premium unleaded fuel from 150 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg from 1 January 2008. The Automotive Diesel Determination set the maximum sulfur content as 500 mg/kg from commencement, with a reduction to 50 mg/kg from 1 January 2006. An amendment in July 2004 required a further reduction to 10 mg/kg from 1 January 2009. The Biodiesel Determination set the maximum sulfur content as 50 mg/kg from commencement, with a reduction to 10 mg/kg from 1 Feb 2006.	Fuel Standard (Petrol) Determination 2001 Fuel Standard (Automotive Diesel) Determination 2001 (both commencing 1 January 2002) Fuel Standard (Biodiesel) Determination 2003 (commencing 19 September 2003) Fuel Standard (Autogas) Determination 2003 (commencing 1 March 2004) Fuel Quality Standards Amendment Determination 2004 (No. 1) (commencing 11 August 2004)
April 2005	First statutory review of the *FQS Act* released The review finds ‘the legislative scheme is appropriately framed, enabling an effective and efficient means for meeting the objects of the Act’.^{^[42]}	Fuel Quality Standards Act Review Panel, Economic Associates (Australia) Pty Ltd and SWB Consulting Pty Ltd, Independent Statutory Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000, April 2005
July 2008	Review of Australia’s Automotive Industry released The review recommends the inclusion of road transport in the (then proposed) emissions trading scheme, or a ‘second best’ policy of introducing mandatory greenhouse gas emissions targets for new vehicles. The review also recommends the government support industry to develop and commercialise technologies aimed at improving vehicle fuel efficiency and emissions.	S Bracks, Review of Australia’s Automotive Industry Final Report, July 2008
March 2009	Second National In-service Emissions Study released The study highlights that a large proportion of emissions are generated by a small proportion of the vehicle fleet (larger SUVs and light commercial vehicles).	Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, Second National In-Service Emissions Study (NISE2) Light Duty Petrol Vehicle Emissions Testing—Final Report, 2009
March 2009	*Report finds prima facie* case for introducing mandatory CO₂ emission standards** The report prepared by the Australian Transport Council (ATC) and Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) also finds ‘there is merit in examining the use of fiscal and purchasing measures to encourage demand for low emission vehicles’.^{^[43]}	Australian Transport Council and the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Working Group Final Report, March 2009 (amended April 2009)
July 2009	National Strategy on Energy Efficiency released The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) incorporates agreed measures from the ATC/EPHC Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Working Group Final Report. Agreed measures include: undertaking a regulatory impact analysis for introducing CO₂ emission standards for light vehicles including fuel consumption and CO₂ data in vehicle advertising (Code of Practice or through mandatory provisions) the Green Car Innovation Fund to support investment in environmentally friendly and technology-neutral automotive technologies voluntary environmental performance benchmarking programs for heavy vehicle and passenger fleets. The National Strategy is supported by the National Partnership Agreement on Energy Efficiency.	COAG, National Strategy on Energy Efficiency, July 2009
November 2009	Report provides a benchmark for CO₂ emissions for new passenger and light vehicles The National Transport Commission report finds: in 2008 the national average of carbon emissions from new passenger and light commercial vehicles was 222 g/km if Australians purchased new vehicles with best-in-class emissions during 2008, the national average would be 34% lower (146 g/km) in 2007 Australia’s carbon emissions from new passenger vehicles and light commercial vehicles were 41% and 27% higher respectively than the EU’s.[44]	National Transport Commission, Carbon Emissions from New Australian Vehicles—Information Paper, November 2009
July 2010	Government commits to introduction of new mandatory CO₂ emission standards for all new light vehicles from 2015 The Government proposes to introduce a mandatory standard with a national fleet-wide target of average CO₂ emissions and each motor vehicle company contributing to this target.	J Gillard, ‘Emission standards for cars’, media release, 24 July 2010
November 2010	Regulation Impact Statement for light vehicle emissions standards released The Regulatory Impact Statement (RIS) recommends that: Euro 5 vehicle emissions standards be phased in from mid-2013, with full compliance by mid-2015 Euro 6 vehicle emissions standards be adopted via a similar phased approach, to cover new models from mid-2017 and all models by mid-2018.[45]	Department of Infrastructure and Transport, Final Regulation Impact Statement for Review of Euro 5/6 Light Vehicle Emissions Standards, November 2010
2011	Discussion paper on light vehicle CO₂ emission standards released The discussion paper presents possible approaches for the emissions target(s) to be established and the most appropriate regulatory framework for implementing the standards. The paper notes a large body of evidence that improvements in light vehicle fuel efficiency ‘can be made at low overall cost or net financial benefit to motorists (from lower fuel costs) and society, even before the value of emissions reductions is taken into account’.[46]	Department of Infrastructure and Transport, Light vehicle CO2 emission standards for Australia—Key issues—Discussion Paper, 2011
16 August 2012	New Fuel Quality Determination and Information Standard for Ethanol E85 made Commencing on 1 November 2012, the Fuel Quality Standard sets out the parameters for Ethanol E85 fuel, while the Information Standard sets out the information requirements that must be displayed at service stations and other places of supply.	Fuel Quality Standard (Ethanol E85) Determination 2012 Fuel Quality Information Standard (Ethanol E85) Determination 2012
June 2013	Orbital Review of sulfur limits in petrol released The review questions whether reducing fuel sulfur could yield significant improvements in the operability of existing and new Euro 5/6 engines or vehicles but notes that ‘to facilitate the adoption of a wider choice of emerging emission control technologies, a reduction in fuel [sulfur] levels to 10 ppm would be required’.^{^[47]}	Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, Review of Sulphur Limits in Petrol, June 2013
March 2014	Productivity Commission recommends accelerating efforts to harmonise vehicle standards A Productivity Commission report recommends accelerated harmonisation of the Australian Design Rules with United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Regulations and the mutual recognition of other appropriate vehicle standards. See recommendation 5.5.	Productivity Commission, Australia’s Automotive Manufacturing Industry, March 2014
June 2014	Climate Change Authority recommends introduction of an emissions intensity standard The Authority proposes: a target to reduce the emissions intensity of the Australian light vehicle fleet from its 2013 level of 192 gCO₂/km to 105 gCO₂/km by 2025 requiring suppliers of new light vehicles to provide more efficient vehicles to the Australian market over time.[48]	Climate Change Authority, Light Vehicle Emissions Standards for Australia—Research Report, June 2014
August 2014	Government response to PC report supports accelerated harmonisation The Government’s response states that it supports the recommendation, that harmonisation was being accelerated and that ‘Australian specific content in the Australian Design Rules will be removed where it cannot be justified’.^{^[49]}	Australian Government, Government’s Response to the Recommendations contained in the Productivity Commission’s Report ‘Australia’s Automotive Manufacturing Industry’, August 2014
September 2014	*Options Discussion Paper in relation to review of MVS Act* released** The paper points to the need for the Act to ‘support the Government’s policy of international and domestic harmonisation of standards’ and ‘take account of wider community costs’ (including environmental performance).^{^[50]} The paper outlines eight reform options, and briefly discusses different approaches to harmonisation.	Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, 2014 Review of the Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989, September 2014
October 2014	Hart Review of Fuel Quality Standards released The Hart Review provides a comparative assessment of Australian fuel quality standards (at that time) with standards for the same fuels in the EU, USA, Japan and South Korea, and makes recommendations to align key parameters, including: petrol (sulfur (10 ppm max), aromatics (35 vol% max)) E85 (sulfur (10 ppm max)) See Tables VII.1 –VII.9 in the report.	Hart Energy, International Fuel Quality Standards and their Implications for Australian Standards, Final Report, 27 October 2014
June 2015	*Issues Paper in relation to review of FQS Act* released** The paper states ‘the overarching feature is that emissions standards around the world are becoming more stringent, which generally means higher quality fuel is needed for the emissions standards to be met’.^{^[51]} The paper states that increasing demand for petrol and diesel was being met through imported fuels and outlined seven reform options.	Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Independent Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Issues Paper, June 2015
October 2015	Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions formed The forum is established to ‘coordinate a whole-of-government approach to addressing emissions from road vehicles’.^{^[52]}	Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications, ‘Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions’, DITRD&C website, accessed 17 June 2021
December 2015	National Clean Air Agreement established The National Clean Air Agreement: … sets a framework to help governments identify and prioritise actions to address air quality issues that would benefit from national collaboration and that deliver health, environmental and economic outcomes for Australians.^{^[53]} Priority areas listed in the 2015–17 and 2018–20 Work Plans include the review of the FQS Act, and management of non-road diesel engine emissions.	Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (DAWE), ‘National Clean Air Agreement’, DAWE website, accessed 17 June 2021
December 2015	Senate Economics References Committee report mentions age of trucking fleet The report briefly touches on emissions issues associated with trucks, with a submission by the Truck Industry Council highlighting that: Around 30% of the truck fleet, or some 175,000 trucks were manufactured before 1996 and, as a result, predate any Australian exhaust emission laws or regulations.[54]	Senate Economics References Committee, Report on the Future of Australia’s Automotive Industry, December 2015 Truck Industry Council, Submission to Senate Economics References Committee, Inquiry into the Future of Australia’s Automotive Industry, 11 May 2015
February 2016	*Draft Report of the Review of the FQS Act* released** The report considered four regulatory options, along with four fuel quality scenarios, finding ‘the historical health benefits appear to substantially exceed the costs that resulted from the introduction of the Act’.[55] However, the report recommended (recommendation 6) that: Given uncertainties regarding the costs and benefits of harmonising fuel quality standards in Australia with international best practice, no decision should be made to harmonise standards including in particular the sulfur content of unleaded petrol and premium unleaded petrol, until further investigation has been undertaken into the costs and benefits of improving the quality of these fuels and the fuel security implications of doing so.^{^[56]} (emphasis added)	Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Draft Report, February 2016
February 2016	Vehicle Emissions Discussion Paper released The paper summarises key issues associated with light and heavy vehicle emissions, the need for more stringent standards for noxious air pollutant emissions (the ‘Euro’ standards), a standards regime for fuel efficiency (CO₂) and fuel quality standards. The paper seeks feedback on measures that could be adopted to reduce the impacts of emissions from road vehicles. Eighty submissions are received, with ‘submissions reflect[ing] strong community support for taking action on vehicle emissions’.[57]	Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Vehicle Emissions Discussion Paper, February 2016
April 2016	*Final report of the Review of the FQS Act* released** The report finds that ‘fuel quality regulation appears to be best served through government regulation’ and recommends implementation of option 2, which involved retention of the FQS Act with amendments to the Act and Regulations.[58] The recommendations include amending section 21 to facilitate greater coordination of fuel quality standards and vehicle emissions standards.[59] The report retains the recommendation from the earlier draft report to postpone a decision on harmonisation of fuel quality standards.^{^[60]}	Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Final Report, April 2016
December 2016	Draft RIS on vehicle emissions released The Draft RIS considers a number of reform options, including (1) business as usual, (2) fleet purchasing policies, (3) voluntary standards and (4–6 (individually and in combination)) mandating Euro 6 for light vehicles and Euro VI for heavy vehicles under the MVS Act.^{^[61]} The Draft RIS finds that the greatest net benefit over the period 2016 to 2040 is provided by Option 6—mandating Euro 6/VI for both light and heavy vehicles under the MVS Act, with a phase-in period of 2019–20, allowing for the updating of Australian Design Rules.	Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Vehicle emissions standards for cleaner air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, December 2016
December 2016	Draft RIS on improving efficiency of light vehicles released The Draft RIS considers a number of reform options, including (1) business as usual, (2) fleet purchasing requirements, (3) a voluntary standard, and (4) a legislated standard. The Draft RIS found options (1) and (2) were unlikely to deliver significant improvements in fuel efficiency, above and beyond business as usual, while option (3) was similarly unlikely to be effective. The Draft RIS examined three different fleet average efficiency targets for the year 2025, with a phase in from 2020, finding that the introduction of an efficiency target would result in a reduction in fuel costs to the economy of $10.8–$27.5 billion, and result in a cumulative reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 25–65 million tonnes by 2030. The Draft RIS found that additional production costs of supplying vehicles incorporating emission control technologies would be more than offset by fuel savings.	Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions and the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Improving the efficiency of new light vehicles—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, December 2016
December 2016	Fuel quality Discussion Paper released The paper proposes five policy approaches for updating existing fuel quality standards: business as usual revision of standards in line with Hart Review and to harmonise with EU standards as per B, with retention of unleaded petrol (91 RON) with a lower sulfur level more stringent revision of standards to harmonise with the Worldwide Fuel Charter staged introduction of world standards from 2020, with retention of unleaded petrol (91 RON), a lower sulfur standard and a new octane standard for premium unleaded (98 RON). Other parameters as per Option B. Over 70 submissions are received.[62]	Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions and the Department of the Environment and Energy, Better fuel for cleaner air—Discussion Paper, December 2016
October 2017	Domestic manufacturing of light passenger vehicles ceases Major car manufacturers Toyota and Holden follow Ford in ceasing light passenger vehicle manufacturing in Australia.	Department of Industry Innovation and Science, Australian Automotive Industry—Transition following the end of Australian motor vehicle production, January 2020
January 2018	Draft RIS for fuel quality standards released The ‘early assessment’ Draft RIS considers Options A, B and C (as per the December 2016 fuel quality Discussion Paper) and Option F, which was put forward by the Australian Institute of Petroleum (AIP), the peak body for Australia’s downstream petroleum industry, during consultations. The AIP, on behalf of its members, made an in-principle offer to supply petrol with reduced sulfur content (10 mg/kg), consistent with EU standards, by 2027.	Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions and the Department of the Environment and Energy, Better fuel for cleaner air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, January 2018
January 2018	*RIS for Review of the MVS Act* released** The RIS considers three options: maintain the status quo repeal the MVS Act reform the MVS Act. Option 3 is identified as the preferred option, providing ‘a balance between reducing regulatory intervention and meeting the public policy objectives of community safety and consumer protection’ and the ‘most effective means to continue the promotion of technologies that will benefit the Australian community’.^{^[63]} The RIS also recommends accelerating harmonisation of vehicle emission standards with international standards and streamlining certification requirements.	Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Regulation Impact Statement—Review of the Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989, January 2018
7 February 2018	Government introduces the Road Vehicle Standards Bill 2018 The Bill seeks to establish a new legislative framework to regulate the importation and supply to market of road vehicles and the provision of some road vehicle components.	Australian Parliament, Road Vehicle Standards Bill 2018 homepage Emily Hanna, ‘Road Vehicle Standards Bill 2018 [and associated Bills]’, Bills Digest, 108, 2017–18, (Canberra, Parliamentary Library, 2018)
August 2018	RIS for fuel quality standards released The RIS recommends a combination of Options C and F, that is, to: reduce sulfur in petrol to 10 ppm from 1 July 2027 retain regular unleaded petrol reduce the pool average of aromatics in petrol from 42% to 35% v/v from 1 January 2022 review the aromatics limit in petrol by 2022 to set a reduced limit by 2027, or establish an alternative solution consult further with industry on the remaining parameters in the fuel standards covered by the RIS, to finalise these prior to 1 October 2019.^{^[64]}	Department of the Environment and Energy, Better fuel for cleaner air—Regulation Impact Statement, August 2018
December 2018	A new *Road Vehicle Standards Act* enacted The Act progressively replaces the MVS Act, with full effect from 1 July 2021.[65]	Road Vehicle Standards Act 2018
10 February 2019	New Fuel Quality Standards (Petrol) Determination made, with low‑sulfur petrol to be mandatory from 1 July 2027 The new Determination replaced the sunsetting Fuel Standard (Petrol) Determination 2001 and introduces: a reduction in the maximum pool average for aromatics, being 45% v/v max with a 42% v/v max pool average from commencement and then 45% v/v max with a 35% v/v max pool average from 1 January 2022 a reduction in the maximum amount of sulfur, being 150 mg/kg for 91 RON grade petrol and 50 mg/kg for 95 RON grade petrol from commencement and then 10 mg/kg for all grades from 1 July 2027.	Fuel Quality Standards (Petrol) Determination 2019 (commencing 1 October 2019)
18 March 2019	New Fuel Quality Standards (Automotive Diesel) Determination made Replacing the sunsetting Fuel Standard (Automotive) Diesel Determination 2001, the new standard sets out the specifications for chemical and physical parameters of fuel supplied as automotive diesel, including renewable and synthetic diesel.	Fuel Quality Standards (Automotive Diesel) Determination 2019 (commencing 1 October 2019)
June 2019	Emissions intensity of Australian passenger vehicles found to be 45% higher than equivalent European vehicles A study by the National Transport Commission (NTC) finds that ‘the national average carbon dioxide emissions intensity from new passenger and light commercial vehicles was 180.9 g/km’.[66] Further, government buyers purchased vehicles with higher average emissions intensity than business and private buyers. The study finds the emissions intensity of Australian passenger vehicles has declined by 28% since 2002.[67] The report identifies the following barriers to reducing emissions intensity: consumer preferences for heavier vehicles with larger and more powerful engines lack of government incentives for lower emissions vehicles low fuel prices.	National Transport Commission, Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2018—Information Paper, June 2019
18 September 2019	A further suite of revised Fuel Quality Standards made The standards replace sunsetting determinations or information standards and make minor amendments to specifications for the chemical and physical parameters of supplied fuel. The Determination for Ethanol E85 introduces a reduction in maximum sulfur content from 52 mg/kg on commencement to 10 mg/kg from 1 July 2027. All commence on 1 October 2019.	Fuel Quality Standards (Autogas) Determination 2019 Fuel Quality Standards (Biodiesel) Determination 2019 Fuel Quality Standards (Ethanol E85) Determination 2019 Fuel Quality Information Standard (Ethanol E85) 2019
October 2019	New Fuel Quality Standards Regulations 2019 introduced The Regulations ‘revoke and replace the [sunsetting] Regulations with minor differences to update the language, simplify administrative arrangements and remove redundant provisions’.[68]	Fuel Quality Standards Regulations 2019
28 October 2019	Sixth Edition of the Worldwide Fuel Charter released The sixth edition adds a new ‘category 6’ for unleaded petrol in markets with stringent emission control and fuel efficiency targets, consistent with carbon dioxide emission reduction targets announced in markets such as the EU, USA and China.	Worldwide Fuel Charter Committee, Worldwide Fuel Charter, Sixth Edition, 28 October 2019
June 2020	NTC report on carbon dioxide emissions intensity of light vehicles released The NTC’s report finds ‘if people who purchased new vehicles in 2019 had chosen the best-in-class for emissions performance, Australia’s average carbon emissions intensity would have dropped 63% to 67 g/km’.[69] The report compares the emissions intensity of Australian new passenger vehicles with other countries using data for 2017: Australia: 169.8 g/km Europe (provisional): 120.4 g/km Japan: 114.6 g/km United States of America: 145.8 g/km.[70]	National Transport Commission, Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2019, June 2020
July 2020	Industry-led voluntary vehicle CO₂ emissions reduction standard announced The Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries (FCAI), the peak body for the automotive industry, announces the voluntary standard. Under the Standard, CO₂ brand targets and assessment of performance are calculated on a sales-weighted average mass per unit basis (where a unit is one vehicle sold), with results also divided into two vehicle categories: MA (passenger cars and light SUVs) and MC+NA (heavy SUVs and light commercial vehicles). The Standard sets a 10-year industry target of reducing emissions from: MA category vehicles by an average of 4.0% per annum MC+NA category vehicles by an average of 3.0% per annum. This is expected to mean that on average, MA vehicles will have CO₂ emissions under 100 g/km and MC+NA vehicles will have CO₂ emissions under 145 g/km by 2030. The Standard provides for CO₂ emissions to be reported in line with existing manufacturer reporting requirements in the EU and allows the carry-forward of credits (2020 to 2030) and debits (from 2024 only).	FCAI, Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries announces voluntary CO₂ Emissions Standard, media release, 24 July 2020 FCAI, CO₂Standard: Rules for Calculating Brand Targets and Assessing Brand Compliance, 12 March 2020 FCAI, CO₂ Standard: Rules for Reporting Brand Targets and Brand Achievement, 19 June 2020
October 2020	Draft RIS for heavy vehicle emissions standards concludes significant health benefits would outweigh the capital costs of adopting more stringent Euro VI noxious emissions standards The RIS proposes that the new standard be applied to all newly approved heavy vehicle models manufactured from 1 July 2027 and for all new heavy vehicles manufactured from 1 July 2028. The RIS seeks information as to whether stakeholders consider earlier introduction might be possible.	Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communication, Heavy Vehicle Emission Standards for Clearer Air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, October 2020
October 2020	Draft RIS for light vehicle emissions standards concludes there would be significant benefits from mandating more stringent Euro 6 noxious emission standards The RIS proposes to implement the new standard at Euro 6d (skipping through the initial transitional and first mandatory stage (Euro 6b) to the second mandatory stage (Euro 6d) that applies in the EU), with the standard applying to new light vehicle models from 1 July 2027 and all new light vehicles from 1 July 2028—aligning the change with the new fuel quality standards.[71] The RIS seeks feedback on possible earlier adoption of Euro 6d.	Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications, Light Vehicle Emission Standards for Cleaner Air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, October 2020
5 February 2021	*Future Fuels Strategy Discussion Paper* released The paper ‘sets out the Australian Government’s direction and practical actions that will enable the private sector to commercially deploy low emissions road transport technologies at scale’.[72] Priority areas include supporting EV charging and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure and integrating battery electric vehicles into the electricity grid.	Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources, Future Fuels Strategy—Discussion Paper, February 2021 Michael McCormack and Angus Taylor, ‘Supporting future fuel technologies and consumer choice’, media release, 5 February 2021
March 2021	Baseline report under voluntary CO₂ emissions standard shows Australian vehicles emit significantly more CO₂ than European vehicles The report states: The MA [passenger vehicles and light commercial vehicles] outcome for 2020 was 150 gCO₂/km and MC+NA [heavy SUVs and light commercial vehicles] outcome for 2020 was 218 gCO₂/km.[73] Three challenges for reducing CO₂ emissions from the Australian passenger and light commercial vehicle fleet are identified: the composition of the fleet, with consumers favouring heavier SUVs and light commercial vehicles the 5–10 year model development cycle, meaning that reduction in emissions will take time poor quality fuel, which limits the introduction of more advanced fuel-efficient vehicle technologies.	FCAI, Australian vehicle industry releases first CO₂ emissions results, media release, 25 March 2021
17 May 2021	Government announces grants for fuel refineries to bring forward introduction of ultra-low sulfur fuel to 2024 As part of the 2021–22 Budget, the Government announced it would provide ‘up to $302 million in support for major refinery infrastructure upgrades to help refiners bring forward the production of better-quality fuels from 2027 to 2024’.[74] The Government’s announcement states: The Government will also accelerate the industry-wide review of the petrol and diesel standard to 2021, including a consideration of aromatics levels. This aims to create a Euro-6 equivalent petrol and diesel standard that are appropriate for Australia. The measure is part of a package aimed principally at securing domestic refining capacity.	Scott Morrison (Prime Minister) and Angus Taylor (Minister for Energy and Emissions Reduction), Locking in Australia’s fuel security, media release, 17 May 2021 Australian Government, Budget Measures Budget Paper No. 2 2021–22, ‘Oil Stocks and Refining Capacity in Australia’, 141 A Macdonald Smith, ‘Investors cheer the government package to end refining losses’, Australian Financial Review, 17 May 2021
August 2021	NTC’s annual report on CO₂ emissions intensity reports on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) for the first time The report states that the 2020 average emissions intensity for: passenger cars and light SUVs was 149.5 g/km heavy SUVs and light commercial vehicles was 216.7 g/km. In contrast, the average emissions intensity for PHEVs was 51 g/km.	NTC, Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2020, August 2021 Note: this report applies a new methodology in accordance with data collected by FCAI under the voluntary industry standard.
26 October 2021	*Australia’s Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan* released The plan, announced on the eve of the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26), sets out how Australia will achieve net zero emissions by 2050. The plan documents existing or proposed strategies, including the (at that time) forthcoming Future Fuels Strategy. Modelling underpinning the plan predicts the share of vehicles with zero direct emissions will grow from less than 1% to around 90%, ‘resulting in road transport emissions falling by more than 70% by 2050 as the number of vehicles and total passenger kilometres grows’.[75] The plan does not mention fuel quality or vehicle emissions standards.	DISER, Australia’s Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan—A whole-of-economy Plan to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, October 2021 DISER, Australia’s Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan: Modelling and Analysis, November 2021 Angus Taylor, ‘Modelling and analysis for long-term emissions reduction plan’, media release, 12 November 2021
2 November 2021	Australia endorses *The Breakthrough Agenda* at COP26 World Leaders Summit The Glasgow Breakthroughs, the first set of common targets under a global policy framework, include the aim to make ‘zero emission vehicles the new normal – accessible, affordable and sustainable in all regions by 2030’. Progress towards the targets will be monitored via an ongoing annual Global Checkpoint Process.	Marise Payne (Foreign Minister) and Angus Taylor, ‘Australia welcomes positive outcomes at COP26’, media release, 14 November 2021 ‘Glasgow Breakthroughs’, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
9 November 2021	*Future Fuels and Vehicles Strategy: Powering Choice* released Initiatives under the strategy are predicted to result in a reduction in emissions by over 8 Mt CO₂e by 2035 and create the environment for there to be 1.7 million electric vehicles on the road by 2030.[76] A section titled ‘Other Australian Government activities’ refers to bringing forward improvements to fuel quality (sulfur) from 2027 to 2024, and ongoing consideration of whether the government should mandate the Euro 6/VI noxious emissions standards.[77]	DISER, Future Fuels and Vehicle Strategy: Powering Choice, November 2021

Glossary of key fuel parameters and other terms

Aromatics: aromatics include benzene and its derivates. ‘A high content of aromatic substances can form combustion chamber deposits in engines and increase particulate matter and other carcinogenic emissions from vehicles. Lowering aromatics would improve engine operability, reduce noxious exhaust emissions, and improve health outcomes’.[78]

Particulate matter (PM): in the context of air pollution, PM refers to solid and liquid particles suspended in the air. ‘PM can enter the human respiratory system and cause or exacerbate respiratory, cardiovascular, and allergic disease. PM is often chemically active in the environment and in humans, can be transported long distances in the atmosphere, and can influence weather and climate’.[79] PM is classified by molecule size: coarse PM10–2.5 (10µm ≤ 2.5µm), fine PM2.5 (2.5µm ≤ 0.1µm) and ultrafine PM0.1 (≥ 0.1µm). Smaller particles are able to penetrate deeper into the respiratory system. Motor vehicles are a large source of PM—especially in urban areas, due to emissions from ICEs, and from road dust and tyre and brake wear.[80] Changes in fuel type (e.g. a shift from diesel to ethanol blend petrol) and the introduction of emission reduction technologies can reduce PM in tailpipe emissions.

Sulfur (sulphur): a natural component in crude oil, ‘sulfur contaminates vehicles’ catalytic converters (catalysts), limiting their ability to convert noxious emissions into less harmful substances’.[81]

Acknowledgements

Thank you to Sophie Power (former Senior Researcher in the Parliamentary Library) whose comments enhanced an earlier draft of this Chronology.

[1]. Revised Explanatory Memorandum, Fuel Quality Standards Bill 2000, 7 September 2000.

[2]. Legislative Research Service, Digest of Bill—Motor Vehicle Standards Bill 1989, 30 May 1989.

[3]. Approximately 90.9 Mega tonnes (Mt) carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e); Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (DISER), Quarterly Update of Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory: September 2021, Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts, 2021, Table 3, p. 9 and p. 14. Note that the decline in transport emissions in the year to 2020 (10.2%) has been largely attributed to COVID-19 restrictions and emissions are expected to increase (that is, return to their pre-COVID trajectory) in the coming years: A Morton, ‘Recent Australian emissions cuts likely to be reversed in recovery from Covid and drought’, The Guardian, 23 February 2021.

[4]. DISER, National Inventory Report 2019, April 2021, p. 53; road transport accounts for 84.2% of Australian transport emissions.

[5]. ‘Motor Vehicle Census, Australia’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, released 30 June 2021. There are also unregistered vehicles used in the agriculture and mining sectors that are not counted in this total.

[6]. Emissions from transport comprised 9.7% of Australia’s emissions in 1990: ‘National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Quarterly Update September 2021’, DISER, 28 February 2022, ‘Emissions by sector’ dashboard.

[7]. The International Council on Clean Transportation, A technical summary of Euro 6/VI vehicle emission standards, Briefing, June 2016, p. 1.

[8]. Health Effects Institute, State of Global Air 2020, interactive database; DALYs are the years of healthy life lost to premature (early) death and disability (illness): ‘Glossary’, State of Global Air, accessed 3 May 2022; Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics, Road trauma Australia 2019 statistical summary, (Canberra, DITRD&C: 2020), p. iii.

[9]. For example, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications (DITRD&C), Light Vehicle Emission Standards for Cleaner Air – Draft Regulation Impact Statement, October 2020, p. 31.

[10]. Stratas Advisors, ‘15 countries move up in Top 100 ranking on gasoline sulfur limits’, Insight, 2 July 2020, Stratas Advisors website, accessed 18 June 2021. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 38 members across the EU, North America, South America and Asia.

[11]. International Energy Agency (IEA), Energy Efficiency 2021, (France: OECD, 2021), p. 66.

[12]. ‘EU: Fuels: Diesel and Gasoline’, TansportPolicy.net.

[13]. Fuel Quality Standards (Petrol) Determination 2019, section 5; Fuel Quality Standards (Ethanol E85) Determination 2019, section 5. RON refers to the Research Octane Number; mg/kg means milligrams per kilogram and is equivalent to ‘parts per million’ or ‘ppm’ by mass.

[14]. S Morrison (Prime Minister) and A Taylor (Minister for Energy and Emissions Reduction), Locking in Australia’s fuel security, media release, 17 May 2021.

[15]. B Park, ‘Wheels Investigation: Australia’s petrol is one of the dirtiest in the world’, Wheels, 26 November 2017.

[16]. Light vehicles are passenger and commercial road vehicles with a gross vehicle mass (GVM) of up to 3.5 tonnes, whereas heavy vehicles are commercial road vehicles with a gross vehicle mass of more than 3.5 tonnes. There are some differences in the classification of vehicles between different countries.

[17]. ‘EU: Light-Duty: Emissions’, TransportPolicy.net; ‘EU: Heavy-Duty: Emissions’, TransportPolicy.net.

[18]. Ibid.

[19]. DITRD&C, Light Vehicle Emission Standards for Cleaner Air – Draft Regulation Impact Statement, op. cit., p. 7.

[20]. DITRD&C, ‘Ministerial Forum of Vehicle Emissions’, DITRD&C website, accessed 17 June 2021.

[21]. Administrative Arrangements Order, 1 June 2022, commencing 1 July 2022; Administrative Arrangements Order, 5 December 2019; commencing 1 February 2020.

[22]. National Transport Commission (NTC), Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2018—Information Paper, June 2019, p. 9.

[23]. European Parliament and European Council, Regulation 2019/631 setting CO₂ emission performance standards for new passenger cars and for new light commercial vehicles, 17 April 2019.

[24]. Ibid, Article 1(2).

[25]. European Environment Agency, ‘Sharp decrease in CO2 emissions of new cars in 2020’, European Commission website, 29 June 2021, accessed 22 April 2022. Note that in 2021 the mandated test procedure changes from the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) to the Worldwide Harmonized Light-duty Test Procedure (WLTP) which more accurately measures ‘real-world’ CO₂ emissions.

[26]. G Erbach, CO₂ emission standards for new cars and vans ‘Fit for 55’ package, Briefing: EU Legislation in Progress, European Parliamentary Research Service, February 2022.

[27]. Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries (FCAI), Australian Vehicle Industry Releases First CO₂ Emissions Results, media release, 25 March 2021.

[28]. J Evans, ‘Australia becoming a ‘dumping ground’ for polluting cars as government delays signing on international standards’, ABC News, 14 October 2021; J Purtill, ‘Australians want to buy electric cars, but car makers say government policy blocks supply’, ABC News, 20 April 2021.

[29]. T Wood, A Reeve and J Ha, Towards net zero—Practical policies to reduce transport emissions, Grattan Institute, July 2021; Electric Vehicle Council, State of Electric Vehicles, March 2022.

[30]. T Wood, A Reeve and J Ha, Towards net zero—Practical policies to reduce transport emissions, op. cit.; Deloitte Access Economics Pty Ltd, Local community benefits of Zero Emission Vehicles in Australia, prepared for the Australian Conservation Foundation, October 2021; J Whitehead, J Whitehead and K Li Lim, ‘As the world surges ahead on electric vehicle policy, the Morrison government’s new strategy leaves Australia idling in the garage’, The Conversation, 9 November 2021; Electric Vehicle Council, State of Electric Vehicles, op. cit.; ‘Time for Australia to ditch the pump: electric vehicles and electric buses can keep Australia moving’, Climate Council, 29 March 2022.

[31]. Australian Institute of Petroleum (AIP), AIP Submission to the Better Fuel for Cleaner Air Discussion Paper, April 2017.

[32]. M Brogan, ‘Conflicting claims about Australian fuel quality’, GoAuto.com.au, 1 November 2021.

[33]. J Whitehead, et al, FACTS: Framework for an Australian clean transport sector, 2022.

[34]. H Laidlaw, Australian oil refineries and fuel security, FlagPost, Parliamentary Library, 17 December 2020.

[35]. D Mercer, ‘Foreign oil dependence a ‘massive vulnerability’ as defence experts call for EVs, green transport’, ABC News, 21 March 2022; C Barrie, J Blackburn, N Greet, C Durrant, M Thomas and I Dunlop, Missing in Action: Responding to Australia’s climate & security failure, (Canberra: Australian Security Leaders Climate Group, September 2021); L Worrall, H Gamble, J Spoehr and AL Hordacre, Australian Sovereign Capability and Supply Chain Resilience—Perspectives and Options, (Adelaide: Australian Industrial Transformation Institute, Flinders University, August 2021); C Butler, A Denis-Ryan, P Graham, R Kelly, L Reedman, I Stewart and T Yankos, Decarbonisation Futures: Solutions, actions and benchmarks for a net zero emissions Australia, (Melbourne: ClimateWorks Australia, March 2020).

[36]. Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989, section 3.

[37]. Motor Vehicle Standards Amendment Act 2001, Schedule 1, Section 1.

[38]. Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, Second National In-Service Emissions Study (NISE2) Light Duty Petrol Vehicle Emissions Testing—Final Report, March 2009, p. 13.

[39]. Worldwide Fuel Charter Committee, Worldwide Fuel Charter, Fifth Edition, September 2013, p. i.

[40]. Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000, section 3.

[41]. Fuel Quality Standards Amendment Act 2003, Schedule 1, section 1.

[42]. Fuel Quality Standards Act Review Panel, Economic Associates (Australia) Pty Ltd and SWB Consulting Pty Ltd, Independent Statutory Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000, Report prepared for the Minister for the Environment and Heritage, April 2005, p. vii.

[43]. Australian Transport Council and the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Working Group Final Report, March 2009 (amended April 2009), p. 6.

[44]. NTC, Carbon Emissions from New Australian Vehicles—Information Paper, November 2009, p. i (Executive Summary).

[45]. Department of Infrastructure and Transport, Final Regulation Impact Statement for Review of Euro 5/6 Light Vehicle Emissions Standards, November 2010, pp. 72–73.

[46]. Department of Infrastructure and Transport, Light vehicle CO2 emission standards for Australia—Key issues—Discussion Paper, 2011, p. 3.

[47]. Orbital Australia Pty Ltd, Review of Sulphur Limits in Petrol, Report prepared for Fuel Policy Section, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, 10 June 2013, p. 22.

[48]. Climate Change Authority, Light Vehicle Emissions Standards for Australia—Research Report, June 2014, p. 5.

[49]. Australian Government, Government’s Response to the Recommendations contained in the Productivity Commission’s Report ‘Australia’s Automotive Manufacturing Industry’, August 2014, p. 3.

[50]. Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, 2014 Review of the Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989, September 2014, pp. 20, 21.

[51]. Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Independent Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Issues Paper, June 2015, p. 8.

[52]. DITRD&C, ‘Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions’, op. cit.

[53]. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW), ‘National Clean Air Agreement’, DAWE website, accessed 8 July 2022.

[54]. Senate Economics References Committee, Senate Economics References Committee Report on the Future of Australia’s automotive industry, The Senate, December 2015, p. 47.

[55]. Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Draft Report, February 2016, p. iv.

[56]. Ibid., p. ix.

[57]. DITRD&C, Heavy Vehicle Emission Standards for Clearer Air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, October 2020, p. 31.

[58]. Marsden Jacob Associates and Pacific Environment Limited, Review of the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000—Final Report, April 2016, pp. iv–vi.

[59]. Ibid, p. 40.

[60]. Ibid, p. xi (recommendation 7); note: no relevant amendments have been made to date.

[61]. Options 2 and 3 were not pursued.

[62]. Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions and the Department of the Environment and Energy (DEE), Better fuel for cleaner air—Draft regulation impact statement, January 2018, p. 4.

[63]. Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, Regulation Impact Statement—Review of the Motor Vehicle Standards Act 1989, January 2018, p. 7.

[64]. DEE, Better fuel for cleaner air—Regulation Impact Statement, August 2018, p. xi. Notes: (i) the ‘pool average’ refers means the average amount of aromatics in all batches of petrol across all grades manufactured in Australia, or imported, by a supplier in each 12 months starting on 1 January; (ii) % v/v means per cent volume by volume and is equivalent to ‘volume %’ and ‘% vol’: Fuel Quality Standards (Petrol) Determination 2019, section 4.

[65]. Existing Australian Design Rules (ADRs) made under the MVS Act are taken to have been made under the Road Vehicle Standards Act: Road Vehicle Standards (Consequential and Transitional Provisions) Act 2018, Schedule 2, section 2.

[66]. NTC, Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2018—Information Paper, op. cit., p. 2.

[67]. Ibid, p. 11.

[68]. Replacement Explanatory Statement, Fuel Quality Standards Regulations 2019, 2 July 2019.

[69]. NTC, Carbon Dioxide Emissions Intensity for New Australian Light Vehicles 2019, June 2020, p. 2.

[70]. Ibid, p. 25.

[71]. The second mandatory stage of Euro 6, known as Euro 6b, commenced in 2017 and introduced a tighter particle limit for direct petrol vehicles and even tighter monitoring thresholds for on-board diagnostics. Euro 6d also adopts a number of measures to improve the integrity of emissions testing, including the Worldwide harmonised Light vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP) and a new on-road Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test: Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications, Light Vehicle Emission Standards for Cleaner Air—Draft Regulation Impact Statement, October 2020, 27.

[72]. DISER, Future Fuels Strategy—Discussion Paper, February 2021, p. 3.

[73]. FCAI, Australian vehicle industry releases first CO₂ emissions results, media release, 25 March 2021.

[74]. S Morrison (Prime Minister) and A Taylor (Minister for Energy and Emissions Reduction), Locking in Australia’s fuel security, op. cit., p. 2.

[75]. DISER, Australia’s Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan: Modelling and Analysis, November 2021, p. 37.

[76]. DISER, Future Fuels and Vehicle Strategy: Powering Choice, November 2021, p. 5.

[77]. Ibid, p. 25.

[78]. DEE, Better fuel for cleaner air—Regulation Impact Statement, op. cit., p. 7.

[79]. CSIRO, Submission to Senate Standing Committee on Community Affairs, Inquiry into the Impacts on Health of Air Quality in Australia, March 2013, p. 7.

[80]. Ibid, p. 10.

[81]. DEE, Better fuel for cleaner air—Regulation Impact Statement, op. cit., p. 7.

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