Issues and Insights Article, 48th Parliament

Diversity, migration and social cohesion

Governments around the world are wrestling with the challenges of migration policy, diversity and social cohesion. While Australia performs comparatively well on measures of social cohesion, maintaining a socially cohesive society will require careful monitoring and balancing of these complex challenges.

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Key issues

Diversity is a reality of Australian society. The challenge for government policy is how to strengthen social cohesion and maximise the benefits of a diverse community while limiting tensions and conflict.
Countries around the world are facing challenges to social cohesion stemming from global factors including armed conflicts, economic pressures and increasingly heated political and ideological debates. Migration trends and cultural diversity form parts of the challenge, but also offer opportunities.
Australia has legislative structures, policy frameworks and a range of international and local metrics available to assist in the understanding and development of migration and social cohesion measures.

Introduction

Social cohesion, diversity and migration issues are key points of focus in international public and political discourse. Migration and multiculturalism are of particular interest for countries such as Australia that have significant migration histories. This article highlights some of the current national and international challenges in these areas, and discusses the concepts, metrics and frameworks available to governments to address community tensions and maximise the benefits of a socially cohesive and diverse Australia.

Global context

Global trends and cross-border tensions are influencing national debates on migration and social cohesion, which can affect community sentiments. Conflicts in the Middle East, Afghanistan and Ukraine, in particular, have drawn attention at the local level in different countries, while the policy initiatives of the new administration in the US will have global implications. Refugee situations, irregular migration and regular managed migration continue to be a focus of international engagement and national policy development, but can also inspire anti-migrant, extremist and discriminatory rhetoric and acts of violence.

These debates are not isolated from current pressures on communities and societies – sometimes characterised as megatrends – which include economic and cost of living stresses; the impacts of climate change and natural disasters; contentious social and cultural shifts; grappling with technological advances; and the increasing polarisation of debate amid the spread of misinformation.

At the same time, countries are aiming to maximise the opportunities of global mobility to attract migrants for their skills and talent, and to seek advantages in the international education and tourism markets. While this is often framed in competitive terms, policy experts also highlight cooperative benefits including skills matching, driving innovation, fostering people‑to‑people links and building vibrant communities. Migration can also be an avenue for international cooperation bilaterally, regionally and globally, through formal or informal structures including trade agreements, regional mechanisms and UN and other international bodies.

Many countries are also experiencing demographic shifts. Migration can play a role in balancing an ageing population and maintaining productivity growth in high-income countries, although it is not a full solution to demographic issues. Developing countries face challenges such as maximising the human development potential of migration while avoiding ‘brain drain’.

Governments around the world are, therefore, concerned with measures to manage migration, influence population trends and shape social cohesion.

Social cohesion concepts

Social cohesion is defined in many ways across the policy literature, but definitions usually encompass factors of belonging, acceptance, sharing common values and goals, and willingness to live and work together for the common good (see, for example, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Social cohesion: concept and measurement).

Elements contributing to a community’s sense of social cohesion include trust in institutions and other people; engagement and participation in social, economic and political life; community safety; justice and fairness; and personal wellbeing. Various ways of measuring and analysing these are illustrated in the international and Australian resources highlighted below.

In exploring the concept of social cohesion, many policy experts caution that cohesion does not require homogeneity or assimilation, and that diversity within a community is not the same as division. Some argue that a simplistic emphasis on social cohesion or harmony can in fact hide experiences of racism and discrimination. Policy experts emphasise that making space for dialogue and debate is important – for example, the UK’s 2024 Khan Review on Threats to social cohesion and democratic resilience states:

Cohesion does not mean consensus or conformity. Instead, cohesion embraces and recognises the importance of pluralism, dissent and debate in a liberal democracy and the need to protect it. (p. 25)

Examining social cohesion can assist policymakers in managing diversity. Diversity is present to varying extents in all countries and societies, and includes not just multicultural or migration factors, but also health and disability, gender and sexuality, age, socio-economic background and indigenous status, among others.

A socially-cohesive society enables greater opportunity for diverse members of communities to participate in, and contribute to, the economy and society. Inequalities can put pressure on social cohesion. However, social cohesion can help build communities that are more resilient in the face of local, national or international challenges.

International frameworks and metrics

At the international level, there is a range of bodies, frameworks and data sources providing metrics and analysis on migration and social cohesion issues. Some key sources include:

the International Organization for Migration’s World migration report and the Population Division of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, which present data and analysis on migration and related global issues
Migrant Integration Policy Index – a comparative tool that assesses 56 countries across 8 areas of migrant integration policy. In the 2020 edition, Australia was ranked as a ‘Top Ten’ country (scoring 65 out of 100 points). The Top Ten countries:

… adopt a comprehensive approach to integration, which fully guarantees equal rights, opportunities and security for immigrants and citizens. Policies in these countries generally encourage the public to see immigrants as their equals, neighbours and potential citizens. (p. 10)

Multiculturalism Policy Index – monitors the evolution of multiculturalism policies in 21 Western democracies. Australia scores well on the immigrant minorities index, meeting 8 out of 8 indicators in 2020 (p. 3). However, Australia scores less well on the indigenous peoples index, meeting 6 out of 9 indicators (p. 2).
Intercultural dialogue index – report measuring the level of intercultural relations in 51 countries. It frames the concept of intercultural dialogue as ‘fostering cross‑cultural understanding and social cohesion’ to help ‘address issues of diversity’ (p. 11). The index combines 31 metrics and indicators across legislative, structural and social dimensions (p. 13). The report states that ‘In five countries including (Sweden, Canada, Australia, Finland, and United Kingdom), we see availability of robust policy environment that encourages ICD as well as significant opportunities for intercultural engagement’ (p. 26). Australia scores an overall result of 0.79 (p. 31), where a score approaching 1 (one) indicates better performance and a score approaching 0 (zero) indicates lower performance.
the OECD’s regular report on Indicators of immigrant integration – settling in, which compares a range of migrant outcomes in OECD and selected countries. It categorises Australia as a longstanding destination country of settlement, along with Canada, New Zealand, Israel and the US (p. 28). Figure 1 below, reproduced from the 2023 report (p. 19), compares countries by the proportions of the population born overseas or with a parent or parents born overseas. For Australia, the total proportion is 53%.

Figure 1 Immigrants and native-born with foreign-born parents

Source: OECD, Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2023 – Settling In, (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2023).

Note: Data is for 2021 or most recent year available. Data for Australia is taken from 2016 Census.

Box 1: International examples of initiatives on social cohesion

In the UK, the 2024 Khan Review recommendations to government included establishing an independent Office for Social Cohesion and Democratic Resilience (p. 16). The House of Lords Library briefing on ‘The importance of social cohesion and communities’ notes the government welcomed the review but had not formally responded prior to the 2024 UK election.

The New Zealand Government conducted a royal commission into the 2019 terrorist attack on Christchurch mosques. Part 9 of the report explores ‘Social cohesion and embracing diversity’, highlighting the need for improvements in leadership and strategy, community engagement, and public sector capacity. It includes a chapter on hate crime and hate speech legislation. In response, the Ministry of Social Development released a strategic framework and package of resources on social cohesion.

The European Commission issued an Action plan on integration and inclusion 2021–2027 for EU member states. The plan aims to address integration barriers for migrants and EU citizens with a migrant background in 4 key policy areas: housing, education, employment and health care.

Australia

Australia’s multicultural composition, migrant history and Indigenous heritage is reflected in its demography. Diversity presents both challenges and opportunities for government policy around social cohesion: measures across a range of legislative and policy areas can seek to promote economic and social participation from diverse sections of the community, while limiting disengagement, tensions and conflict. Recent independent reviews of the migration system (Review of the migration system, 2023) and the multicultural framework (Towards fairness: a multicultural Australia for all, 2024) provide analysis of options for policy development.

Measuring social cohesion

The debate on migration and population in Australia intersects with a range of public concerns that influence perceptions of social cohesion, including housing and infrastructure, the environment, cost of living, trust in government and institutions, and family and community ties. The Scanlon Foundation Research Institute has examined these factors in its Mapping Social Cohesion surveys since 2007.

The Scanlon Index of Social Cohesion measures indicators across 5 domains: sense of belonging; sense of worth; social inclusion and justice; political participation; and acceptance and rejection. Scores for the indicators are indexed against the 2007 results with a baseline of 100. The 2024 survey report states the overall index result for 2024 was 78 – the same as in 2023, but below the long-term average (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 The Scanlon Index of Social Cohesion, 2007 to 2018 (telephone surveys) and 2018 to 2024 (online and telephone)

Source: James O’Donnell, Qing Guan and Trish Prentice, 2024 Mapping Social Cohesion Report, (Melbourne: Scanlon Foundation Research Institute, 2024), 13; 15.

Key findings include:

49% of people agree ‘the number of immigrants accepted into Australia at present’ is too high – an increase from 33% in 2023 and 24% in 2022, which reflected the impact of COVID-19 pandemic border closure measures and the subsequent rebound in migration arrivals, and renewed political focus on immigration (p. 31)
85% of people agree that ‘multiculturalism has been good for Australia’ and 71% agree that ‘accepting immigrants from many different countries makes Australia stronger’; however, 59% agree that ‘too many immigrants are not adopting Australian values’ (p. 38)
‘Concern about the number of immigrants is related to actual shifts in immigration and the economy – and may not indicate an increase in anti-migrant sentiment’ (p. 32).

Current frameworks

Global issues and tensions often find expression in the Australian community – Islamophobia and antisemitism have risen to the fore since the Israel-Hamas conflict began in October 2023; far-right extremism (including in Australia) was highlighted as a security and terrorist threat following the 2019 attack on Christchurch mosques; and anti-Asian sentiment gained visibility during the COVID-19 pandemic.

These tensions can become linked with other social issues, including perceptions of crime rates, youth disengagement and community safety, especially for minority groups.

Policy responses can seek to address harmful actions and impacts, such as through anti‑discrimination legislation, legislating against hate speech or acts, or introducing tighter security and preventative measures. Other policy measures target causes through countering violent extremism and enabling support for local community initiatives. Recent antisemitic hate crimes, in particular, have triggered community division and government responses, including through legislation (see Box 2).

Box 2: Legislative frameworks

Legislation provides a framework for addressing behaviours which harm individuals and act against social cohesion, while also setting standards and supporting education and awareness on relevant issues.

Australia has a range of legislation at the Commonwealth level aimed at preventing discrimination and promoting equality. These include the:

Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986, which gives effect to Australia’s obligations under certain international human rights instruments, and establishes the Australian Human Rights Commission as an independent statutory organisation with powers to investigate complaints of discrimination and human rights breaches
Age Discrimination Act 2004
Disability Discrimination Act 1992
Racial Discrimination Act 1975
Sex Discrimination Act 1984
Criminal Code, which contains offences of advocating violence against targeted groups or individuals, for publicly displaying and trading in prohibited symbols and giving the Nazi salute

Recent amendments extended some of these measures, introduced new offences for threatening force or violence against targeted groups and property including places of worship, and introduced mandatory sentencing for certain hate crimes and terrorism offences.

Federal governments over time have proposed a Religious Discrimination Bill.

Australian state jurisdictions also have legislation prohibiting a range of harmful behaviours targeting particular groups and individuals (for example, on racism).

The post-COVID-19 boost in migration, along with cost of living pressures, drew public and political attention to migration issues. In public debate, migration and population growth are often linked with infrastructure and housing stresses; however, the linkages between these trends are dependent on a number of interrelated factors. The role of Net Overseas Migration (NOM), in particular, is complex (see Box 3).

Box 3: Net Overseas Migration and migration frameworks

NOM is the difference between arrivals to, and departures from, Australia. This includes both permanent and temporary migrants (including New Zealand citizens), as well as Australians entering and leaving Australia. Arrivals are counted in NOM if they are in Australia for a total of 12 months or more during a 16-month period.

NOM differs from the numbers of visas granted, whether permanent (where places in the Migration Program are set annually) or temporary (where most categories are demand‑driven – not capped). Many people granted visas in the permanent Migration Program are already in Australia on a temporary visa (a process known as visa transitioning or pathways to permanency), and will already have been counted in NOM. Temporary visa holders are the largest contributing group to migrant arrivals. International students are the largest group within migrant arrivals, accounting for some 207,000 out of 667,000 arrivals in 2023–24.

With Australia’s fertility rate declining, NOM is the main driver of population growth.

NOM is not a target set by government (forecasts are produced by the Centre for Population within Treasury), but the government can seek to influence NOM through migration management measures. For example, while most categories of temporary visa are demand‑driven and, therefore, uncapped, there has been recent debate on limiting numbers of international student visas.

Visa and migration settings enable the government to shape not just the size, but also the composition, of the migrant intake. This can be managed through adjusting parameters such as eligibility criteria for both permanent and temporary visas via amendments to the Migration Act 1958 and Migration Regulations 1994.

Visa criteria and conditions aim to manage the entry and stay of people in Australia and fulfil various functions of migration planning beyond influencing population levels. Such functions include filling skills gaps; encouraging innovation and contributing to productivity; promoting cultural exchange; attracting tourists and international students; enabling families to be together and providing for humanitarian need.

These settings must be carefully balanced with other areas of government policy, such as meeting employer and industry needs while preventing exploitation.

Looking forward

Australian governments have long emphasised the need for a well-managed migration system that produces positive economic and social outcomes and inspires public confidence – essential elements for social cohesion. Social cohesion frameworks emphasise the importance of maintaining channels for community consultation, engagement and debate and building public trust in government. Governments around the world are wrestling with the challenges of migration policy, diversity and social cohesion. Australia performs well on measures of social cohesion globally, but maintaining a socially cohesive society will require careful monitoring and balancing of these complex challenges.