Mike Roarty
Science, Technology, Environment and Resources Group
10 October 2000
Contents
Major Issues
Introduction
Renewable Energy Use in Australia
Renewable Energy Used in Electricity
Generation
The Renewable Energy Mix
Large-scale Hydro
Mini or Small-scale Hydro
Biomass
Wind
Solar
Solar Photovoltaic
Solar Thermal
Tidal, Wave and Ocean
Geothermal
Geothermal Heat Pumps
Hot Spring Geysers and Hot Rock Geothermal Systems
Green Power Schemes
Development Constraints of Renewable Electricity
Generation Capacity
The 2 per cent Mandatory Increase in the Use of
Renewables
Meeting the 2 per cent Target
Investment Requirements for the 2 per cent
Target
Magnitude of the Task of Implementing the 2
per cent Target
Impact of the Kyoto Protocol
Overseas Developments
Conclusions
Further Information
Endnotes
Tables
Table 1:
Renewable Electricity Generation (end 1997) Capacity
Output
Table 2: Location and Capacity of Wind
Turbines
Table 3: Planned Wind Turbine
Installations
Table 4: Interim Targets
Figures
Figure 1:
Renewable Energy Sources in Australia
Figure 2: Electricity Generation by Fuel
Type
Figure 3: Electricity Generated by
Renewables
Boxes
Box 1: Major Fuels
Used in Electricity Generation
Box 2: Bagasse Developments
Box 3: Waste-to-Energy Developments
Box 4: Planned Wind Developments
Box 5: Solar PV Demonstration Sites
Glossary
|
|
Alternating Current
|
An electric current that reverses its direction
of flow at regular intervals.
|
Bagasse
|
Sugar cane fibre (waste) produced during the
sugar cane refinery process.
|
Base-load
|
That part of electricity demand which is
continuous, and does not vary over a 24-hour period. Approximately
equivalent to the minimum daily load.
|
Direct Current
|
An electric current that flows in only one
direction.
|
Green energy
|
The term has no strict definition although it is
used widely in the energy literature. The term refers to energy
generated by renewable accredited technologies and incorporates
perceptions of cleanliness and sustainability.
|
MW
|
Capacity of electricity plant is measured in
megawatts (MW). If a 1 MW capacity plant is run for one hour,
it generates 1 MWh of electricity, for 1 000 hours,
either 1 000 MWh or 1 GWh
|
Acronyms
|
|
ACCC
|
Australian Competition and Consumer
Commission
|
AC
|
Alternating current
|
AGO
|
Australian Greenhouse Office
|
DC
|
Direct current
|
EDL
|
Energy Developments Limited
|
ESAA
|
Electricity Supply Association of Australia
|
GEM
|
Green electricity market
|
GHG
|
Greenhouse gases
|
GWh
|
Gigawatt hours (109 watt hours)
|
GST
|
Goods and services tax
|
IEA
|
International Energy Agency
|
kW
|
Kilowatt (103 watts)
|
MWh
|
Megawatt hours (106 watt hours)
|
NEM
|
National Electricity Market
|
OECD
|
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development
|
PV
|
Photovoltaic
|
RAPS
|
Remote Area Power Systems
|
RSAPS
|
Renewable Stand Alone Power Systems
|
SEDA
|
Sustainable Energy Development Authority of New
South Wales
|
SWERF
|
Solid Waste Energy Recycling Facility
|
V
|
Volt
|
Major
Issues
Renewable energy currently contributes some 10.7
per cent total electricity supply. By far the largest contributor
is large-scale hydro with smaller contributions from bagasse,
mini-hydro, waste-to-energy and hot water systems. Only minor
contributions are currently made from wind farms and solar
photovoltaic (PV) systems, which are often offered as replacement
renewable alternatives, perhaps somewhat naively, to traditional
fossil fuel generated electricity.
The use of renewable generated electricity is
set to increase by around 2 per cent (9 500 GWh of
electricity annually) by 2010 with the introduction of Federal
Government legislation. This increase will boost the contribution
of the use of renewable energy in electricity generation to 12.7
per cent by 2010. It is expected that over the period 2010 to 2020,
the use of renewable generated electricity will remain at this
level. It has been estimated that the 2 per cent increase will
require some $300 million of infrastructure investment annually for
ten years or some $3 billion in total. Many industry proponents,
however, back the measure despite the cost.
One of the primary reasons for the introduction
of the mandatory 2 per cent increase, was an expected substantial
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions which would result from
electricity being generated by 'clean and green' renewable
technologies compared to emission intensive coal-fired power
stations. Australia's Kyoto commitment was to limit greenhouse gas
emissions growth to 108 per cent of the 1990 baseline. However, it
has been estimated that the 2 per cent measure will only result in
savings of up to 7 million tonnes of greenhouse gases which in
comparison to total emissions is quite small.
There are significant developments occurring in
both wind and solar renewable technologies. Increase in the use of
these technologies is emerging, although, in comparison to fossil
fuel generated electricity, they remain expensive and unable to
supply continuous base-load power, which underpins electricity
supply in most Western economies including Australia. Australia is
at the forefront of research and development in photovoltaic solar
energy. This work is being undertaken by Pacific Solar, a joint
venture between Unisearch (the research arm of the University of
New South Wales) and Pacific Power. Other work is also being
undertaken in other renewable energy fields in Australia,
particularly waste-to-energy and bagasse systems.
The mandatory 2 per cent increase in the use of
renewable electricity generation will provide a substantial
financial incentive to support research and development into an
Australian renewable energy industry. As Australia is only a
relatively small market, any large-scale renewable electricity
generation developments would need a strong focus on export
opportunities. There is high demand for small-scale electricity
generating renewable electricity generation technologies in many
Asian countries.
The development of renewable electricity
generation offers opportunities and benefits but also has hurdles
to confront. Renewable electricity generation will most commonly be
small scale and be located close to its point of use (known as
distributed or embedded generation). Advantages of generating
systems located close to where the electricity is used is that
there is little loss in transmission and distribution, such as with
large-scale traditional power plants and distribution systems.
Renewable technologies sited much closer to the
point of use are however more highly visible. There has been
opposition to the building of wind turbines in highly visible
sites, despite the benefits of the generation of renewable energy.
Other issues that confront the introduction of renewable energy
systems are high up-front cost and the shift of responsibility from
electricity utility to the end user for infrastructure maintenance
following the installation of renewable electricity generation
capacity. Additional costs such as the installation of net metering
capable of measuring excess electricity flow back into the
electricity grid may also be involved. Also, at issue, are the
repurchasing policies of large individual electricity retailers.
Whilst some retailers offer generous repurchasing policies for
small players, there is no broad scale industry standard.
Recent declines in wholesale and retail prices
of electricity with the development of the competitive national
electricity market (NEM) present difficulties for renewable energy
development. Cost reductions have been associated with an
increasing competitive electricity retail market and a number of
technological improvements, as for example in coal mining
operational practices, which feed through into cheaper fuel and
generating costs. These declines have come just at a time when
renewable energy technologies are attempting to establish
themselves. Most renewable energy mixes remain uncompetitive in
cost terms against fossil fuel electricity generation.
There has been some success with the
introduction of green electricity schemes, although market
penetration has been small attracting only a small percentage of
total customers who consume small quantities of electricity. Many
businesses and households appear unprepared to pay more for what
amounts to be an undifferentiated product. The green energy program
has attracted what might be called dedicated followers but has not
impacted largely as a substantial market sector.
Introduction
The aim of this paper is to outline some of the
current issues pertaining to the use of renewable energy in
electricity generation in Australia.
Renewable energy has always been high on the
agenda of advocates of sustainable development because it does not
involve the use of finite resources. Renewable energy is defined as
any source of energy that can be used without depleting its
reserves. These sources include sunlight or solar energy, wind,
wave and ocean, hydro and biomass energy. Biomass refers to any
recently produced organic matter. If the organic matter is produced
in a sustainable manner, it is considered a renewable energy
source.
The paper outlines the contribution to
Australia's energy use from renewable sources and, in particular,
the use of renewable energy in electricity generation. Each of the
sectors in the renewable energy mix is described. Apart from
large-scale hydro, which presently accounts for the bulk of
electricity generation from renewable sources, the other sectors
contribute only in a minor way.
The paper refers to the introduction of green
energy schemes that now operate in most Australian States and
Territories. These schemes offer consumers the opportunity to
purchase green energy (generated by accredited renewable energy
suppliers) at higher prices. The additional premiums are used to
pay for the additional costs of providing renewable (green)
electricity.
The paper outlines a number of difficulties that
confront the development of renewable energy technologies such as
the high initial costs associated with renewable energy
infrastructure. Also, an issue is a change of responsibility from
large-scale electricity retailers to end user associated with the
end user for infrastructure maintenance following the installation
of renewable electricity generation capacity, which will require
readjustment.
Electricity generation from renewables is
anticipated to increase by 2 per cent to around 12.7 per cent of
total electricity generating capacity by 2010. This will result
from new mandatory Federal Government legislative requirements. The
Renewable Energy (Electricity) Bill 2000 establishes the
framework for the implementation of this requirement. If passed,
the Bill will result in substantial new investment in the sector.
This required increase will create a major challenge for the
renewables sector, as the bulk of the new supply will need to come
from renewable technologies such as biomass, mini-hydro, wind,
solar and other technologies that presently only contribute in a
small way to renewable supply.
Part of the rationale for further development of
the renewable energy industry in Australia was expected reductions
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with electricity
generation, the largest GHG emissions contributor. Reductions of
emissions are closely allied with Australia's commitment to limit
the growth in greenhouse gas emissions made at Kyoto, in Japan in
1997 (The Kyoto Protocol). Whilst some savings will result from the
expansion of the renewable energy sector, these savings in
aggregate will be only quite small, especially for the next decade
or so.
For broad comparative purposes, the paper
outlines some major renewable energy developments in a number of
overseas countries. In particular, a number of European countries
have long promoted the use of renewable energy in the power supply
sector. In addition, a number of these countries have become major
manufactures and suppliers of renewable technology.
Renewable
Energy Use in Australia
The use of renewable energy to generate
electricity is only one of its applications. The term 'energy' is a
generic term pertaining to the capability of doing work and should
not be substituted for 'electricity'. Renewable energy, as well as
being used for electricity generation can be used to produce heat
and steam for industrial processes, home heating for warmth and
heating water. The major renewable energy sources in use in
Australia are outlined in Figure 1.
Figure 1:
Renewable Energy Sources in Australia

Source: ABARE 1999.
It can be seen from Figure 1 that the two
largest contributers to total renewable energy use are bagasse and
wood (each 39 per cent), followed by hydro at 21 per cent. Solar is
well behind the other sectors at 1 per cent. The bulk of energy
generated from wood is used for home heating whereas bagasse is
primarly used for the generation of energy related activities
(including process heat and electricity) in the sugar cane
industry. Some excess electricity generated from bagasse in the
sugar industry is exported to the grid. Energy generated by hydro
(both large-scale and mini) is almost exclusively used for
electricity generation and presently provides the bulk of renewable
electricity generating capacity in Australia. Solar hot water
systems, and many of the other forms of traditional renewable
energy, namely biomass (now largely bagasse), waste-to-energy,
solar photovoltaics (PV), wind, solar thermal, fuel cells,
and-further down the track-geothermal, wave and tidal power have
varying potential as sources of renewable energy generation. Solar
water heaters are examples of solar thermal systems in that heat is
captured from solar radiation. The use of solar water heaters makes
a contribution (see next section) in that water heated by this
means negates the requirement to heat this equivalent amount of
water by other means, for example, by electricity generated from
coal-fired power stations.
Renewable Energy Used in Electricity Generation
In the electricity generating sector, renewable
energy currrently contributes some 10.7 per cent of total
generating capacity(1) most of which comes from
large-scale hydro electricity schemes, notably the Snowy Mountains
Hydro-electric Authority in southern New South Wales and Hydro
Tasmania.
The bulk of Australia's electricity generation
is presently sourced from black and brown coal. Australia's
electricity generation by fuel type is shown in Figure 2. Australia
has abundant high quality reserves of both black and brown coal and
natural gas. These readily exploitable low-cost resources have been
one of the major contributing factors leading to Australia having
amongst the cheapest electricity tariffs in the OECD.(2)
Predominant use of these low cost resources is likely to continue
for the foreseeable future. Coal and gas-fired electricity plants
supply continuous base-load power, which is essential for
industrial and commercial use and also for household use. Renewable
energy supplies (excluding large-scale hydro) have often been seen
as supplementing conventional base-load power supply. Even
large-scale hydro generated electricity has limitations in that
generation capacity is lost in times of low river flow and reduced
dam capacity in drought periods. One advantage of hydro is that it
can be readily activated for high demand peak load periods. Many
forms of renewable energy-especially solar and wind-have the
decided disadvantage that they can only generate electricity when
the sun is shining or the wind is blowing. Storage of electricity,
other than in small scale remote systems has to date proved
impractible and expensive; in other words electricity is best used
directly, regardless of the source of generation.
Figure 2:
Electricity Generation by Fuel Type

Source: AGO and modifications after ESAA,
1999.
Details of the major fuel used in electricity
generation are outlined in Box 1.
Box 1: Major Fuels Used in Electricity Generation
Black coal at 54.6 per cent of
the total is the major fuel used for electricity generation. Large
base-load power stations in New South Wales and Queensland are
located in relative close proximity to black coal fields in the
Hunter Valley, New South Wales and the Ipswich and Tarong coal
fields, near Brisbane, Queensland respectively. The large base-load
power stations located in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, source
their coal supplies from the nearby brown coal (lignite) deposits.
Gas presently supplies 5 per cent of the fuel for electricity
generation although this is projected to increase with the further
development of both existing and new gas fields and the extension
of gas pipeline infrastructure. Major pipeline developments include
the Eastern Gas Pipeline project connecting Longford in Victoria to
Winton in New South Wales and the possible building of the PNG gas
pipeline, which would extend from PNG across Torres Strait and
along the Queensland coast to Gladstone, and possibly Brisbane.
These pipeline developments will provide the impetus for the
development of additional gas-fired power stations. |
As previously mentioned, renewable energy
presently supplies 10.7 per cent of electricity generation. The
present contribution of renewables to electricity generation is
outlined in Figure 3. It is apparent that the bulk of electricity
generation presently comes from large-scale hydro electricity
generating systems-87.97 per cent. There is a massive fall away to
the next largest sector of biomass at 5.33 per cent followed by
mini-hydro systems at 3.85 per cent. The remainder is made up from
solar hot water systems, wind, solar photovoltaic systems
(including photovoltaic grid connected and remote area power
supply) and solar thermal systems. Solar hot water systems use
solar energy to heat water and do not in themselves generate any
electricity. However, what is measured is the quantity of
electricity that would have been required to heat the equivalent
amount of hot water.
Figure 3:
Electricity Generated by Renewables

Source: Redding Energy Management, 1999.
The
Renewable Energy Mix
A survey conducted by Redding Energy Management
assessed the level of installed electricity generation capacity
from renewable energy sources and this is outlined in
Table 1.
Table
1: Renewable Electricity Generation (end 1997) Capacity
Output
Resource-Technology combination |
Installed capacity MW
|
Generated output GWh/y
|
Large-scale hydro
|
7 580
|
16 000
|
Mini hydro
|
200
|
700
|
Bagasse
|
|
|
|
Bagasse cogeneration
|
250
|
400
|
|
Black liquor
|
49
|
90
|
|
Other
|
6
|
40
|
Municipal
|
|
|
|
Landfill gas
|
80
|
400
|
|
Sewerage gas
|
15
|
20
|
Wind, main grid
|
0.2
|
0.4
|
Wind, small grid
|
2.5
|
4.4
|
Photovoltaic, grid
|
0.14
|
0.3
|
Solar thermal
|
0.045
|
<1
|
Photovoltaic, RAPS
|
13
|
29
|
Wind, RAPS
|
1
|
2
|
Solar hot water
|
190
|
500
|
Total
|
8 390
|
18 200
|
Source: Redding Energy Management 1999. Note:
See explanation linking the terms MW and GWh in Glossary.
Large-scale Hydro
Large-scale hydro in Australia comprises the
Snowy Mountains in southern New South Wales and Hydro Tasmania. The
Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme is one of the most
significant engineering feats ever completed in Australia. It was
built for the dual purpose of diverting water from the eastward and
southerly flowing Snowy catchment system into the westward flowing
Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers, and generating substantial amounts
of hydro electricity from water flows of the various dams and water
diversions systems within the complex. Hydro Tasmania is regarded
in many quarters as one of the most influential government bodies
in Tasmania with responsibility for the building of dams and
managing almost all the electricity generation sector of
Tasmania.
Because of the almost total dominance of these
two facilities in the renewable electricity-generating sector, it
would appear that if Australia wished to expand output of
electricity generation from renewables, then the answer would be to
further develop large-scale hydro. This could be done either by
expanding these two systems or building another series of dams with
incorporated generating turbines. Many large-scale dams are still
being built in other parts of the world, an example being the huge
controversial dam on the Yangtze River in China, with incorporated
hydro electricity generating capacity. The Chinese Government
maintains that the dam will control chronic flooding and produce
electricity to feed a rapidly growing economy. However, there are
many detractors of this development, both within China and other
parts of the world.
Many Australians are now aware of the
substantial environmental impact large dams have, and it would
appear unlikely any further large scale dams with incorporated
hydro electricity generating capacity will be built in Australia.
The proposed building of a dam on the Gordon below Franklin in
Tasmania became the focus of Australia wide attention back in the
early 1980s and Federal Government intervention prevented the
building of the dam. Also, there has been political pressure to
reinstate previously diverted water to the Snowy River from the
Murray-Darling systems. It was recently announced (3)
that the New South Wales and Victorian governments have reached
agreement in-principal on a proposed outcome to the Snowy Water
Inquiry. However, the Commonwealth will not be in a position to
respond to the Snowy Water Inquiry until the Environmental Impact
Statement process on the Corporatisation of the Snowy Mountains
Hydro-electric Authority is completed. It is hoped that by
mid-November 2000, the Commonwealth will announce its response. Any
water diversion from the Murray-Darling would make less water
available for hydro generation and for irrigation purposes along
the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers. Another factor is that most of
the areas suitable for dam development in Tasmania now lie in world
heritage classified areas.
Mini or Small-scale Hydro
A classification scheme widely used breaks hydro
into a range of sizes from a few hundred watts to over hundreds of
megawatts. At the low end of the scale, small hydro can be divided
into three categories: micro (less than 100 kW), mini
(100 kW to <1 MW) and small (1 MW to
<10 MW). Micro-hydro systems operate by diverting part of
the river flow through a penstock or pipe, which drives a turbine
to produce electricity. Micro-hydro systems are preferable from an
environmental point of view in that river flow patterns are not
disrupted and no flooding of valleys behind dam walls upstream is
required. A recent study commissioned by the Sustainable Energy
Development Association (SEDA) of New South Wales has found there
are some 36 sites with a potential generating capacity of greater
than one GWh/year without major inundation schemes or alteration to
river flow. In Queensland, there are some five to eight projects
with capacities 1-3 MW capacity at evaluation stage.
Biomass
Bioenergy is energy produced using biomass,
which is organic matter. Biomass energy is derived from plant and
animal material, such as wood from forests, residues from
agricultural and forestry processes and, industrial, human or
animal wastes. Wet biomass, such as piggery effluent or sludge, can
produce combustible gases, made up largely of methane. Biomass such
as wood and bagasse can be burnt to produce heat, or alternatively
gasified to produce a clean burning fuel.
One of the most important sources of biomass is
bagasse, which is sugar cane waste. A number of Australian sugar
refineries produce their own energy from the burning of bagasse and
there are a number of substantial new bagasse plants under
development, some of which are detailed in Box 2.
Box 2: Bagasse Developments
At present, the sugar mills in
Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia have a combined
capacity of 300 MW.(4) A major bagasse plant
development at Rocky Point, in southern Queensland, is presently
under construction. This plant will have a capacity of some
30 MW producing some 200 000MWh (or 200 GWh) of
electricity annually when completed. The plant will operate year
round, using locally sourced wood waste for fuel (obtained as a
by-product of forestry operations) outside the normal 20-week sugar
cane crushing when the bagasse waste will be unavailable. Excess
generated electricity will be exported to the grid. A large number
of sugar mills located along the Queensland coast are evaluating
further opportunities to use bagasse as a combustible source for
small-scale electricity plants. |
The use of waste-to-energy is an important
source of renewable energy and it has substantial potential.
Details of a number of developments are outlined in Box 3.
Box 3: Waste-to-Energy Developments
In New South Wales, there is some 20 MW of
installed generation capacity using gas produced from waste
decomposing in landfill, enough to power 20 000 homes. Energy
Developments Ltd (EDL), operates 14 waste-to-energy landfill sites
in Australia, with a combined capacity of 70 MW, and has been
actively expanding these activities in the United Kingdom and the
United States. EDL has become an international leader in generating
energy from waste in municipal dumps. A number of projects use
methane gas produced from microbial decomposition of organic
matter. The gas is drained and burnt in gas turbines to generate
electricity. In addition to the operation of landfill
waste-to-energy sites, EDL operates a solid waste energy recycling
facility (SWERF) at a municipal waste facility near Wollongong, New
South Wales. The facility is designed to recover reusable and
recyclable resources prior to the conversion of organic components
into gas and then electricity.
|
Wind
Australia's wind turbine industry is presently
in its infancy. There has been considerable growth in this sector
with the building of a number of medium size wind farms, for
example Pacific Power's 5 MW facility at Crookwell, New South
Wales. A number of new wind farm development proposals are under
serious consideration. New grid electricity generation from wind
turbines is gradually becoming competitive with
conventionally-fuelled systems in many areas of the world and could
become the cheapest form of purely fuel-free renewable electricity
production in Australia within the next five to ten years. It has
been estimated that wind energy could supply 10 per cent of
Australia's total electricity generating capacity in the medium
term.(5) However, based on current and planned
infrastructure, such projections would appear highly optimistic.
For example, electricity generating capacity in Victoria at the end
of 1999 stood at 8 297 MW and major planned wind farm
project at Codrington and Toora only have a combined capacity of
38 MW.
Both the average wind speed and the variability
of speed determine the quality of a wind energy resource at a given
location. These factors will determine both the amount of energy
which a wind generator of given size can supply in a year, and the
extent to which wind energy can provide guaranteed capacity.
Australia has a large wind energy resource by
world standards. There are many areas on the coastlines of the
southern states of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria and Western
Australia, which are subject to the prevailing winds termed the
'roaring forties'. There are other areas in Australia that are
suitable to build wind farms because of favourable prevailing winds
and the CSIRO along with other organisations have undertaken and
are undertaking studies to outline this potential.
Australia's present wind generating capacity is
outlined in Table 2. Most of the facilities are less than one
megawatt and most are hybrid systems, that is systems providing
electricity from back up fuels such as diesel. Wind systems are
modular-the more units, the more output. Large wind farms can be
spread over wide expanses of land. Wind farms may not unduly
interfere with rural life as animal grazing and crops can extend up
to the wind turbine. Wind turbines do however have an environmental
impact, the most notable being visual, with other considerations
being turbine generated wind noise and possible effects on bird
migratory patterns.
There is also opportunity for Australia to
participate in developing wind technology, in manufacturing,
assembly techniques or power system/electrical design. As things
stand now, about two-thirds of a wind farm project cost is
attributed to the importation of turbine
components.(6)
A number of significant wind farm developments
are outlined in Box 4.
Table
2: Location and Capacity of Wind Turbines
Location |
State |
Capacity MW
|
Crookwell
|
New South Wales
|
4.8
|
Esperance
|
Western Australia
|
2.0
|
King Island
|
Tasmania
|
0.75
|
Kooragang Island
|
New South Wales
|
0.60
|
Thursday Island
|
Queensland
|
0.45
|
Denham
|
Western Australia
|
0.23
|
Malabar
|
New South Wales
|
0.15
|
Cooper Pedy
|
South Australia
|
0.15
|
Flinders Island
|
Tasmania
|
0.10
|
Breamlea
|
Victoria
|
0.006
|
Murdoch
|
Western Australia
|
0.005
|
Aurora
|
Victoria
|
0.001
|
Coconut Island
|
Queensland
|
0.001
|
Total
|
|
9.243
|
Source: Department of Industry Science and
Resources, 1999.
Table 2 shows that the current capacity of
Australia wind generators is very low, less than 10 MW.
There are however, a substantial number of new
wind renewable energy projects in the planning stage. These
developments are outlined in Table 3.
Table
3: Planned Wind Turbine Installations
Site
|
State
|
Developer
|
Estimated Capacity (MW)
|
Albany
|
WA
|
Western Power Corporation
|
21.6
|
Blayney
|
NSW
|
Pacific Power, Advance Energy
|
10.0
|
Codrington
|
Vic
|
Pacific Hydro Limited
|
18.0
|
Lake Bonney
|
SA
|
P Hutchinson
|
15.0
|
Toora
|
Vic
|
Stanwell Corporation
|
20.0
|
Windy Hill
|
Qld
|
Stanwell Corporation
|
12.0
|
Windy Hill
|
Qld
|
Stanwell Corporation
|
13.0
|
Woolnorth
|
Tas
|
Hydro Tasmania
|
10.5
|
Woolnorth
|
Tas
|
Hydro Tasmania
|
120.0
|
Total
|
|
|
240.1
|
Source: Hydro Tasmania; Note: planned operations
as at the end of 1999.
Box 4: Planned Wind
Developments
1. |
Hydro Tasmania has
embarked on the first stage of construction of a 130 MW wind
farm at Woolnorth, in the north west of Tasmania. The company
presently operates a small wind farm at Huxley Hill on King Island,
which began operating in 1998. The King Island facility has three
turbines with a total capacity of 750 kW. The Woolnorth
development would become Australia's largest wind farm. Hydro
Tasmania has reached agreement for the purchase of some 3 000
hectares of land for the proposed development. This purchase
negates to some extend the possibility of project veto by adjoining
neighbours as happened to wind farm development proposals at Cape
Bridgewater, Victoria in 1999. |
2. |
Western Power
Corporation's Albany WA project would comprise 12 wind turbines
with three 35 m blades mounted on 65 m towers with a total
capacity of around 22 MW. According to the WA Energy Minister,
Mr Colin Barnett, the project will involve capital expenditure of
around $45 million. The wind farm is expected to be in operation by
July 2001. The project is expected to supply 75 per cent of
Albany's power requirements, enough electricity for 17 000
homes and result in the savings of some 76 000 tonnes of
carbon dioxide emissions by burning less coal and natural gas to
generate electricity.(7) |
3. |
Stanwell Corporation
Ltd, a Queensland Government-owned generator utility operates a
12 MW wind farm on the Atherton Tablelands at Windy Hill,
about 5 km from Ravenshoe. The $20 million project was completed in
mid-2000 and was undergoing final stages of commissioning in
September. The project is expected to generate electricity for
about 3 500 households and result in savings of some
25 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.(8) The
company plans to build a second wind farm with a capacity of
13 MW at the same location depending on a positive evaluation
of the initial 12 MW facility. Environmental factors including
aesthetics, impact on wildlife, noise levels and compatibility with
telecommunications systems will be part of the assessment
process. |
4. |
Stanwell Corporation
has received approval for the construction of a $35 million wind
farm at Toora, Victoria. The project will consist of a 13-turbine
farm with a capacity of 20 MW. Each turbine would be about
70 m high, with a propeller blade of up to 35 m. The wind
farm is expected to take about 12 months to build. The council set
the area at Toora aside for the future development of wind farming
some 10 years ago.(9) |
5. |
Pacific Hydro,
Limited, an Australian owned company, publicly listed on the
Australian Stock Exchange, completed construction of a 18.2 MW
wind farm at Codrington, south western Victoria, in July 2001. The
$33 million project-its 14 turbines will generate enough
electricity for 15 000 homes-is the first wind farm built by
Pacific Hydro. By 2004, the company plans to have up to eight wind
farms in Victoria and Western Australia-where wind conditions are
more conducive to commercial wind farms.(10)
Construction will commence in the later part of 2000. Powercor
Australia, a Victorian electricity distributor, has signed an in
principal agreement to purchase electricity from the wind
farm. |
6. |
Pacific Power
expects to complete the construction of a wind farm with a capacity
of 10 MW at Blayney, New South Wales, by the end of 2000. The
$18 million joint venture will feature 15 turbines and generate
enough energy to supply 3 500 homes. The wind farm will be
built, owned and operated by Pacific Power, with the electricity
generated sold under contract of a New South Wales distributor,
Advance Energy, for its green power scheme.(11) |
Solar
Australia has extensive areas with access to
good solar resources. Despite its promise in a land of abundant
sunshine, solar photovoltaic technology has so far failed to make a
major impact on Australia's energy market.(12) It would
appear that the science has to date been overshadowed by its high
cost. Solar energy can be converted into both electricity via solar
photovoltaic cells, commonly called PV, and heat via thermal solar
systems.
Solar Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight
directly into electricity with no noise, emissions or pollution.
The cells are wired together in-groups, sealed in glass covered
panels and put on rooftops or solar farms in designated
configurations in appropriate positions. The panels transform the
energy from the sunlight into low voltage Direct Current (DC)
electricity, which is converted via an inverter into standard 240
volt Alternating Current (AC) used in most homes. According to many
commentators, solar PV remains very appropriate for small isolated
communities, although a major role is not seen for solar PV in grid
supplied electricity generation. Solar PV systems are expensive and
with efficiencies of 15 to 20 per cent (conversion of sunlight into
electrical energy), other renewable technologies to date have
appeared more attractive. However, commercial innovations in design
and manufacturing by companies such as Pacific Solar and BP Solarex
are aimed at reversing these perceptions.
In Australia, Solar PV systems presently supply
infinitesimal quantities of generated electricity (as at the end of
1997, there was only of the order of 13 MW installed
capacity). Most of this is in remote area power supply systems.
Telecommunications remains a major market where small quantities of
electricity are required to keep distant and very remote
telecommunications equipment running. Other uses include the
generation of electricity used in equipment for railway signalling,
navigational aid, metal cathodic protection and remote fuelling
installation equipment. A number of relatively small-scale solar
farm grid connected systems have been built. These include Kalbarri
in Western Australia, Singleton and Queanbeyan in New South Wales
and Wilpena Pound in South Australia. The Queanbeyan solar farm,
belonging to Great Southern Energy, a New South Wales electricity
distributor, comprises a solar powered 50 kW generator
consisting of 720 PV panels, each rated at 77 W and arranged
on nine separate modules of 80 panels. It generates in the order of
100 000kWh (100 MWh) of electricity per year.
Demonstration solar sites have also been
established by a number of electricity utilities to further
evaluate the solar PV technology. Details of these sites are
outlined in Box 5.
Box 5: Solar PV Demonstration Sites
Two prominent solar PV sites
include Citipower's Energy Park called Project Aurora, and Energy
Australia's Olympic Village, Homebush Bay, Sydney, New South Wales.
At the Olympic Village, each house in the suburb has been fitted
with PV solar panelling on rooftops, which should generate
1600 kW hours a year (1.6 MWh), and for the village in
total generate around 1 000MWh of electricity. For comparative
purposes, the average suburban house would use around 8 to
10 MWh of electricity per year, hence, the Olympic Village
complexes have supplemented their energy needs with space and water
heating from other energy sources. Furthermore, electricity would
need to be used carefully and optimally.
|
Australia is at the forefront of research
directed towards the development of solar power. Pacific Solar, a
joint venture between Pacific Power (a New South Wales electricity
generator and Unisearch, a research arm of the University of New
South Wales) has invested considerable effort into solar research.
Pacific Solar plans to begin manufacturing new proprietary
polycrystalline silicon thin film technology solar panels. The
panels or modules of panels will be designed to fit onto or into
standardised roof panels, each with a low cost current converter
attached-with each panel or module ready to plug into the
grid-connected system. The prospect of being able to sell surplus
power into the grid, with the simplicity of drawing from the grid
when the sun is not shining, is considerably more appealing than
installing elaborate battery storage systems.
Whilst PV cells still remain expensive, the
world market is growing at around 30 per cent per year, and costs
continue to decline. There is speculation that this technology may
have a major impact on the way energy is provided to the community
in the years to come. A large percentage of all residences or
building complexes may be fitted with modular PV panels, not only
providing power for their own needs, but feeding excess supply to
the broader electricity grid. Solar PV, from a very small base is
overtaking wind as the fastest growing generation technology. Major
PV manufacturing companies include British Petroleum, now
advertising itself as bp (beyond petroleum), Enron, and Siemens.
Estimates vary as to when the cost of PV will fall to the point of
mainstream competitiveness. It is generally accepted that this
should occur in the next decade given the continuation and
expansion of the market development programs in
place.(13)
Solar Thermal
The traditional solar hot water system uses
solar thermal technology to provide hot water. As previously
mentioned, hot water heated in this fashion negates the requirement
to use electrical power to heat the equivalent amount to hot water.
Redding Energy Management (see Table 1) estimates that as at the
end of 1999, some 500 GWh of electricity would be required to
heat the equivalent amount of hot water presently being heated by
the current level of installed hot water systems.
Solar thermal systems are also used for
electricity generation. Solar collectors (big dishes) focus the
sun's energy in order to boil water or other fluids in some cases,
create steam and drive steam turbines. The former solar thermal
facility at White Cliffs, belonging to Australian Inland Energy, a
New South Wales Government owned electricity distributor has been
re-configured such that the sun's rays are now focussed on a PV
cell arrangement to generate electricity. Capacity of solar thermal
systems in Australia as at the end of 1997 were less than
0.1 MW and this technology is still considered experimental,
despite the White Cliffs plant operating with this configuration
for some 20 years.
Tidal, Wave and Ocean
There is no renewable energy being generated
from either tidal, wave or ocean action in Australia at present.
Tidal power utilizes the twice daily variation in sea level caused
primarily by the gravitational effect of the moon, and to a lesser
extent, the sun, on the world's oceans. A promising $360 million
project proposal has been put forward to harness tidal power in the
Derby region of Western Australia, although it has received a
setback in that a competiting option using a gas-fired plant has
received initial approval for development from the Western
Australian State Government. However, the Labor Opposition in
Western Australia has backed the development of the tidal option.
The project proponents, Tidal Energy Australia, are seeking up to
$75 million in Government assistance, some $60 million in Federal
funding from greenhouse abatement funding programs and some $15
million from State funds to build various earthwork
infrastructure.
Wave power results from the harnessing of energy
transmitted to waves moving across the ocean surface. Wave
demonstration plants operate at Port Kembla, New South Wales and
Portland, Victoria.
Geothermal
Geothermal generated electricity is not expected
to be available in Australia for some time. Geothermal systems can
comprise near-surface geothermal heat pumps, the utilisation of
energy from hot spring geysers, and the tapping of deep seated hot
rock geothermal heat sources. The near surface geothermal heat pump
system is dominantly associated with space heating requirements
whereas the later two systems can be utilised for both space
heating or electricity generation.
Geothermal Heat Pumps
The geothermal heat pump is used in individual
buildings (most often commercial). An example of such is the new
Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) building in
Canberra. The geothermal system comprises a series of heat pumps
which carry water through loops of pipes buried in bore holes, 100
to 200 metres deep, enabling an exchange of heat with the earth.
This relatively constant temperature that prevails at these depths
in the earth's crust (16 to 17 degrees Celsius) is transferred to
the building and then either raised or lowered with conventional
power to the temperatures required.
Hot Spring Geysers and Hot Rock
Geothermal Systems
Hot spring geysers are natural occurring
geological features located in areas of active volcanism (for
example, the North Island of New Zealand). There are no such
natural features in Australia.
Hot rock geothermal systems offer some potential
in Australia. The proposed method of electricity generation from
hot rock geothermal systems involves drilling boreholes into
mega-heated (estimates range in temperatures up to 300 degrees
celsius) deep-seated granitic basement complexes that can be
several kilometres below the earth's surface. Water is then pumped
down the boreholes, superheated by the large basement rock
complexes, converted to steam, and returned to the surface. The
steam drives steam turbines in a power station to generate
electricity. A number of areas of high potential are presently
under evaluation including the Hunter Valley near Newcastle and
somewhat further afield in the Cooper/Eromanga Basin in north east
South Australia. The area near Newcastle has particular appeal
because of its location, close to an urban usage area. A hot rock
geothermal project, once established would last for a century or
so, and as such is not strictly renewable but is regarded as so in
general context. The large mass of basement rock would retain its
heat despite the feeding of cold water into the mass through
surface boreholes.
Green
Power Schemes
Green energy schemes in most Australian States
and Territories offer consumers the opportunity to purchase so
called green energy (generated by accredited renewable energy
suppliers) at higher prices. Green power products sold by
accredited electricity retailers are rigorously monitored under a
national Green Power Accreditation Program, administered by
government energy agencies in all states and territories. The
premiums are used to cover the higher cost of renewable energy in
addition to the generation of some monies for research and
development to enable further the penetration of renewables into
the electricity-generating sector. Great Southern Energy, a New
South Wales electricity distributor, established an Earthsaver
program in 1997 and now supply green energy to some 2 500
customers.
Development Constraints of Renewable Electricity Generation
Capacity
The development of renewable electricity
generation offers opportunities and benefits but also has hurdles
to confront.
Renewable energy systems have high up-front
installation costs, which immediately detract from their
development, as customers mostly opt for cheaper so called
'traditional' fossil fuel generated energy. Many of the renewable
technologies have been around for centuries although almost
invariably many of these systems have been replaced by energy
supplied by fossil fuels. Whilst costs of renewable technologies
have declined by orders of magnitude, in absolute terms, they
remain many time more expensive than fossil fuel generated
electricity. Although costs of renewable technologies have been
declining, so have the costs of traditional fossil fuel generated
energy. Technological advancements, as for example in coal mining
operational practices, feed through into cheaper fuel (coal) and
generating costs.
Recent declines in wholesale and retail prices
of electricity with the development of the competitive national
electricity market (NEM) also present difficulties for renewable
energy development. Cost reductions have been associated with an
increasing competitive electricity retail market and a number of
technological improvements. Another factor leading to significant
price declines for fossil fuel generated energy in Australia has
been the massive labour shedding programs associated with the
corporatising and privatising of formerly owned State Government
owned and operated monopoly electricity entities. These price
declines have come just at a time when renewable energy
technologies are attempting to establish themselves. Most renewable
energy mixes remain uncompetitive in cost terms against fossil fuel
electricity generation.
Many renewable energy developments in the world
have to date been supported by government initiated programs
incorporating subsidies and tax credits. The 2 per cent initiative
is yet another of these approaches. The ultimate objective from
Government fiscal support is the encouragement and development of
renewable energy technology such that with ongoing technological
advance and economies of scale, costs will decline to the point
where renewable energy technologies are incorporated into
mainstream energy supply.
Another difficulty with a shift from the 'status
quo' and utilisation of renewable energy systems such as
photovoltaic PV would be an associated shift of responsibility from
an electricity utility to the end user for infrastructure
maintenance. Additional costs such as the installation of net
metering capable of measuring excess electricity flow back into the
electricity grid may also be involved. Also, at issue, are the
repurchasing policies of large individual electricity retailers.
Whilst some retailers offer generous repurchasing policies for
small players, there is no broad scale industry standard.
Renewable electricity generation will most
commonly be small scale and be located close to its point of use
(known as distributed or embedded generation). Advantages of
generating systems located close to where the electricity is used
is that there is little loss in either transmission or
distribution, such as with large-scale traditional power plants and
distribution systems.
Renewable technologies sited much closer to the
point of use are however more highly visible. There has been
opposition to the building of wind turbines in highly visible
sites, despite the benefits of the generation of renewable energy.
An irony is that some members of a community that promote renewable
energy use are the same members that oppose wind farm development
in particular locations. The development of wind farms in areas of
low wind frequency would be pointless and wasteful.
The 2 per
cent Mandatory Increase in the Use of Renewables
The Federal Government has initiated the
introduction of legislation to increase the use of renewable energy
used for the generation of electricity. The Renewable Energy
(Electricity) Bill 2000 was introduced into the Lower House on
22 June 2000. On enactment of this legislation, Australian
electricity retailers and other large buyers of electricity, will
be required to source 9 500GWh (approximately 2 per cent of
total supply) of electricity per year from new renewable sources
from 2010. Electricity retailers will be required to buy renewable
energy certificates in a green electricity market (GEM) to cover a
nominated portion of their electricity purchases. The measure will
increase the use of renewable energy for electricity generation to
around 12.7 percent of total electricity generating capacity by
2010. The measure is an example of demand stimulation with the
intention to accelerate the uptake of renewable energy in
grid-based electricity supply. A wide range of renewable energy
sources have been identified as being eligible for the purposes of
the 2 per cent measure. These are: solar, wind, ocean, wave and
tidal, hydro, geothermal, biofuels, specified wastes, solar water
heating, pump storage hydro, Renewable Stand Alone Power Systems
(RSAPS), and co-firing renewables with fossil fuels and fuel cells
using a renewable fuel.(14) A notable exception as being
classified as ineligible is waste coal seam methane gas. Whilst
this is a hydrocarbon, and as such not strictly renewable energy,
it is abundant and it is an aggressive greenhouse gas. Its capture
and use for electricity generation would be a good environmental
outcome.
The requirement of the 2 per cent measure will
remain at least at the legislated level throughout the period from
2010 to 2020. The administration of the scheme will involve the
purchasing and trading of renewable energy certificates. Owners of
eligible renewable energy generation assets will hold the renewable
energy certificates in the first instance, until traded among
liable third parties. Liable parties will be required to surrender
renewable energy certificates, through the Regulator, equivalent to
their total liability in that year. The government has agreed that
penalties for non-compliance should be set at $40/MWh for the term
of the measure. Penalties will be redeemable if the shortfall is
made up within the next three years.(15)
Table
4: Interim Targets
Year |
Required additional GWh
|
2001 |
400
|
2002 |
1100
|
2003 |
1800
|
2004 |
2600
|
2005 |
3400
|
2006 |
4500
|
2007 |
5600
|
2008 |
6800
|
2009 |
8100
|
2010 |
9500
|
Source: The Australian Greenhouse Office. Note:
The commencement of the Scheme is 1 January 2001.
Meeting the 2 per cent Target
The 2 per cent target (which will be
enforceable) will be phased in with annual interim targets (see
Table 4), over the period 2001-2010. Interim targets have been
recommended to ensure that there would be consistent progress
towards achieving the additional 9 500GWh of renewable
electricity generation by 2010 and that all of the investment did
not occur in the final years of the scheme. The preferred phasing
path has been designed to gradually grow to allow industry to
adjust to the target, with a faster growth rate in the final
years.
Investment Requirements for the 2 per cent Target
Electricity generated from renewable electricity
generation (apart from large-scale hydro schemes in place) is of an
order of magnitude more expensive than electricity generated from
conventional means. Although costs have been declining with the
introduction of newer technologies, these still remain higher than
conventionally generated electricity. It is envisaged however that
costs for renewable energy will continue to decline as investment
in these areas ramp up to cater for the new supply requirement.
The Electricity Supply Association of Australia
(ESAA) estimates the 2 per cent renewable measure, which aims to
have 9 500GWh of new renewable power produced annually from
2010, will require $3 billion in capital outlays to establish the
necessary infrastructure and will add $300 million (plus GST) to
electricity charges.(16)
Magnitude of the Task of Implementing the 2 per cent
Target
Australia presently has 8 390MW of
renewable energy electricity capacity, which produces some
18 200GWh of electricity per annum (see Table 1). Hence, the
task at hand to generate an additional 9 500GWh of electricity
per annum by renewable means by 2010, is an increase of just over
50 per cent of current production of renewable electricity
generation. The ESAA has estimated that an additional
3 000 MW of renewable capacity will need to be bought on
line to generate the required amount of renewable electricity. It
is apparent from the data outlined in Table 1, and the information
in the summary overviews of the renewable energy mix, there is very
little current capacity in any of the renewable categories apart
from large-scale hydro, that will readily be accessible to
contribute to the new measures. The obvious question is where will
the future capacity in renewables come from? Projects either under
construction or consideration only amount to a fraction of the
3 000MW capacity required. For example, biomass projects under
present consideration amount to some 200 to 300 MW and wind
projects amount to some 240 MW.
Industry commentators expect biomass projects
(including waste-to-energy) will account for about half of the new
generation capacity, with wind providing around 20 per cent,
efficiency gains in large-scale hydro and mini-hydro systems 10-20
per cent and solar PV and solar thermal the rest. With such a
breakdown, there is an expectation that additional renewable
capacities will be biomass 1 500 MW, wind 600 MW,
hydro systems 450 MW and solar 450 MW.
No allowance is made in these estimations for
geothermal, tidal, wave and ocean renewable systems. These schemes
would no doubt be large scale and would tend to operate in a
base-load fashion if built. However, the ratio of contribution to
the new renewable energy capacity is largely based on expected
costs of implementation, biomass being the least and solar PV and
solar thermal at the higher end of the cost curve. There is a high
degree of uncertainty as to the cost of a constructing either a
large-scale hot rock geothermal project or ocean tidal system.
Impact
of the Kyoto Protocol
Australia as a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol
has an undertaking to limit greenhouse gas emissions growth to an
eight per cent increase on a 1990 base level. A number of industry
and government stakeholders have suggested that the 2 per cent
measure will result in annual savings of six to seven million
tonnes a year in savings of greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst this
is not a large contribution in terms of absolute savings when one
considers Australia's total emissions in 1998 were 455.9 million
tonnes, it will be an important contributor. However, in addition
to the contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the 2 per
cent measure is expected to greatly assist the development of an
important and growing worldwide sustainable energy industry. In
association with the provision of important domestic renewable
energy infrastructure, there is considerable potential to develop
renewable energy exports to Asian countries where there is high
demand for power systems, especially for smaller scale embedded
RAPS.
Coal-fired power stations are the major
contributors in creating greenhouse gases. In Australia,
fossil-fuelled power stations emit an estimated 55 per cent of our
annual carbon dioxide emissions, well ahead of vehicles, which emit
an estimated 17 per cent.
Overseas Developments
At present, the largest potential renewable
energy markets in developed countries are in Europe. The European
Commission has set a target of doubling to nearly 24 per cent the
contribution of renewable energy to Europe's electricity needs by
2010. Europe is a large market for wind generation. The European
market is expected to grow from 4 780 MW in 1997 to
10 000 MW by 2000, at an average growth rate of 22 per
cent. Major wind farms are located in Germany, Denmark, Spain, the
Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Denmark is the dominant
exporter of wind generating equipment. There is also a large
potential for wind power in the United States, for new, large
machines to replace older, smaller units dating from the 1980s.
However, a number of commentators believe the overall potential for
market growth in the United States is low.
Developments have also occurred in the solar PV
market. Governments around the world have announced programs to
achieve more than 10 000 MW of PV power by 2010. As far
back as 1996, the Japanese Government proclaimed guidelines to
achieve more than 400 MW of PV power by 2000 and to increase
this further to 4 600 MW by 2010. The United States
Government announced its 'million solar roof initiative' in 1997.
Germany and Switzerland have announced both programs to a lesser
extent.(17)
The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts
global electricity generation will grow by an average of 3 per cent
per year between 1995 and 2020. By 2010 the IEA projects total
electricity generation capacity will have increased to
4 556 GW, an increase of almost 48 per cent from 1995.
Renewables (other than hydro) is expected to increase to 43 GW
(or 43 000 MW) in 2010 compared to 13 GW in 1995 (an
increase of over 230 per cent).
The French Prime Minister announced in May 2000,
that France would invest the equivalent of almost US $300
million of Government funds in renewable energy. However, European
Commission forecasts indicate that France will lag behind the rest
of the EU in the use of renewables by 2010-reaching nine per cent
of generation output against an EU average of 12.5 per cent and
Denmark's proposed 29 per cent. France has rejected suggestions
that it should follow Germany and end its substantial reliance on
nuclear power, which is around 80 per cent.
The European Energy Commissioner, Loyola de
Palacio, is promoting a plan that will see the overall share of
renewable electricity in the EU rise to 23.5 per cent from the
present 14.5 per cent. This includes the contribution from
hydro-electric schemes.(18)
Conclusions
Renewable energy presently supplies 10.7 per
cent of Australian electricity generation capacity. The Federal
Government has introduced mandatory legislation to increase the use
of renewable energy by some 2 per cent (9 500 GWh of
electricity annually) in increments to around 12.7 per cent of
total generation capacity by 2010.
The bulk of renewable energy in electricity
generation comes from large-scale hydro schemes located in the
Snowy Mountains in southern New South Wales and in Tasmania.
Presently, only small contributions to electricity generation come
from other renewable energy sources such as mini-hydro, biomass,
wind and solar energy systems. Solar hot water systems result in
considerable savings in electricity generation. However, their
market penetration has remained relatively small because of their
high initial cost and perceived ongoing maintenance
requirements.
Industry commentators estimate the mandatory
requirement for the increase in renewable energy will require $3
billion in capital outlays and will add $300 million (plus GST) to
electricity charges annually. Of the order of 3 000 MW of
new renewable electricity generation capacity will need to be
constructed to generate this electrical output. At present,
installed renewable electricty generating capacity stands around
8 390 MW in comparison to total electricity gnerating
capacity as at the end of 1999 of 39 383 MW.
The commentators expect biomass projects
(including waste-to-energy) to account for about half of the new
generation capacity, with wind providing around 20 per cent,
efficiency gains in large-scale hydro and mini-hydro systems 10-20
per cent and solar PV and solar thermal the rest. With such a
breakdown, there is an expectation that additional renewable
capacities will be biomass 1 500 MW, wind 600 MW,
hydro systems 450 MW and solar 450 MW. There are a number
of substantial developments in biomass, wind and solar PV in
Australia. Solar PV is one of the fastest growing businesses, with
solar cell PV manufacturing increasing in the order of 30 per cent
per annum. The concept of plug-and-power solar panelling on
roof-tops which both generate electricity for internal use and
excess generation available for export back to the grid is very
appealing.
Further Information
Detailed information on all forms of renewable
energy in Australia is outlined in a recently published Department
of Industry Science and Resources Energy Action
Agenda(19) and the Australian Greenhouse Office has a
dedicated Internet renewable energy site at http://renewable.greenhouse.gov.au/.
Endnotes
- Australian Greenhouse Office, 'The Australian Renewable Energy
Website, Overview', www.greenhouse.gov.au
- Electricity Supply Association of Australia Limited,
'Electricity Australia', Sydney, 1999, pp. 58-59.
- Senator Nick Minchin, 'Snowy water inquiry announcement
welcomed by Senator Minchin', Department of Industry Science and
Resources, 00/444, Canberra, 6 October 2000.
- Department of Industry Science and Resources, 'Renewable Energy
Action Agenda, Discussion Paper', Big Island Graphics, Canberra,
December 1999, p. 38.
- M. Stevens, 'Renewable energy options in Australia and New
Zealand for the next 25 years, the technologies and the
feasibilities', in W.J.,Bourma, and G.J.,Peraman, 'Greenhouse:
coping with climate change, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood,
1996.
- P. Rae, 'Water and Wind', 'Paper presented at ESAA-Renewable
Energy for the New Millennium Conference, Sydney, March 2000.
- M. Drummond, 'Western Power windfarm', Financial Review, 30
June 2000, p. 20.
- S. Hayes, 'Wind farm blows away pollution', Weekend Australian,
15 April 2000, p. 22.
- The Age, 'Plain sailing for important wind farms in Victoria',
17 July 2000.
- L. D. Fisher, 'Air Apparent', The Bulletin, 21 March 2000, p.
60.
- stralian Environmental News, 'Renewable requirements welcomed',
vol 15, no. 1, Canberra, January 2000, p. 15.
- Electricity Supply Magazine, 'Solar PVs long march to success
on urban roofs', February 2000, p. 12.
- Electricity Australia 1998, Annual Report, Sydney, p.15.
- Department of Industry Science and Resources, 'Renewable Energy
Action Agenda, Discussion Paper', Big Island Graphics, Canberra,
December 1999, p. 19.
- The Australian Greenhouse Office, '2%: A boost for the
renewable energy industry, A positive greenhouse outcome', www.greenhouse.gov.au
- ESAA Media Release, 'ESAA calls for energy efficiency to become
greenhouse priority', Canberra, 15 June 2000,.
- Electricity Australia 1998, Sydney, p. 14.
- Electricity Supply Newsletter, 'France says "non" to nuclear
ban', no. 124, Sydney, 17 July 2000, p. 7.
- Department of Industry Science and Resources, 'Renewable Energy
Action Agenda, Discussion Paper', Big Island Graphics, Canberra,
December 1999.