Matthew James, Technology Adviser
Science, Technology, Environment and Resources Group
6 April 1998
Contents
Major Issues Summary
Introduction
Australian Satellite Programs
Commercial Satellite Launch Projects
Space Industry Policy
Life in Space
Space Futures
- Space Exploitation and Application
Endnotes
Appendix
Acronyms
Space programs
provide an important variety of services to Australia. However,
they require a degree of independent capability to best serve a
population with limited technological resources. The diffusion of
knowledge and innovation across industry and society is an
important aspect of space capability and is a potential catalyst
for creating new and valuable spin-off technologies. These include
bio-engineering, robotics, optics, materials, software,
electronics, power cells, ground control systems, data processing
and advanced manufacturing technologies. Project management, space
education and training follow as important support structures. The
development of commercially viable spacecraft launchers is a
growing activity, as is the growth of collaborative international
space ventures, both public and private. There are three main
applications of space technology, namely, remote sensing of Earth,
communications systems, and scientific exploration.
Remote sensing
studies the atmosphere, oceans, ice and land and how they interact.
This helps Australians to better understand the changing
environment over a diverse continent and the surrounding seas. The
work also assists our space industry to gain the best possible
position in international markets for satellite systems, ground
support stations and data services. Remote sensing satellites
provide images of the Earth in optical, infrared, radar and other
types of electromagnetic spectrum channels. However, the unique
properties of the Australian landmass require special observing
techniques and processing for success. Scientists use satellite
data in a myriad of ways, from monitoring vegetation cycles,
studying earthquake deformations, forecasting the weather and
climate modelling, through to mineral prospecting, fishing stock
mapping, urban planning and nature conservation.
Satellite
communications and multimedia now link with navigation systems
enabling global services for mobile terminals and applications such
as aircraft contact, shipping logistics, tele-medicine, Internet
use and tele-education. Broadcasting satellites provide direct
regional television and radio and specialised local services.
Telecommunications satellites offer flexible, high-capacity routes
for voice and data services, providing backup in the event of
undersea cable failure. Defence satellite communications and
monitoring provide the basis for intelligence, treaty observance
and military deployments. Given the rate of change in the
information revolution, space systems will play a major future
role.
Lastly, together
with Earth-based astronomy, space science helps us to better
understand the solar system, our galaxy, the Universe and
ourselves. Special scientific instruments on spacecraft collect and
interpret data on radiation levels, forces, magnetism and the
electromagnetic spectrum of emissions. Bursts in the solar wind can
disrupt power transmissions on Earth and also damage satellites.
Investigation of the role of gravity in the evolution of plants can
also lead to understanding in the causes of demineralisation of
human bones and muscle atrophy. The pharmaceutical industry has
interest in the growing of high quality protein crystals in space,
while the study of influenza viruses in low gravity helps our
understanding of Earth based biological processes. The study of
space debris and the space environment and its hazards is now
emerging, but the excitement of planetary exploration remains the
greatest of human adventures.
Space activities
are important to Australia in both monetary and utility terms.
Australia already spends over $500 million annually on satellite
systems but mostly overseas and with no guarantee that local
industry will derive benefit and involvement in such programs. The
nation has long purchased Intelsat and Inmarsat satellite system
access, but our industry has not participated in their spacecraft
or component assembly contracts. Other nations provide us with
meteorological and remote sensing imagery and navigational
satellite services, but with no certainties over continuation of
service or the future costs.
Nonetheless, recent
initiatives may provide some salvation through the development and
launch of small-satellite payload demonstration projects. The
FedSat program will focus on design and construction of such a
multi-purpose spacecraft in time for the Centenary of Federation,
before leading on to more ambitious missions. The private ARIES
program aims to capitalise on local expertise in imaging systems
through development of a small commercial remote sensing satellite.
The ASRI amateur group also plans a small satellite.
Meanwhile, a number
of private commercial satellite launch vehicle proponents view the
Australian landmass as offering stable potential for cost-effective
rocket operations. They all involve use of derivative overseas
rocket systems launched from sites as diverse as Woomera, Darwin,
Gladstone, Cape York or Christmas Island. However, their
feasibility relies on the world market for communications and
imaging satellite systems, a market that international competitors
are also keen to secure. While Australia moves to facilitate launch
operations, maybe just one will succeed, given some vision and
support.
Current government
administrative arrangements for space have now split into a
practical development program (FedSat) under CSIRO, with broader
policy matters still retained within DIST. As a legacy of past
myopia and minuscule budgets, only now is the bureaucracy reaching
a degree of familiarity with space systems and international legal
requirements. Space policy has probably had more reviews than any
other area in the portfolio, but finally there is now a move
towards defining specific space industry policy.
There remains a
strong popular interest in astronomy and space exploration, though
at a basic level of understanding. Fascination with the search for
life in space, on Mars and nearby stars has not extended to public
support for practical Australian space programs. Critics of space
exploration view it as exploitation on a grand scale. If
appropriate space policy is to survive, it must address Earth's
issues and proper socioeconomic goals for us.
Why bother about space? After all it's above our heads, or is
it? Australia might use global communications satellite systems,
remotely sensed imagery, space-based meteorological forecasting and
navigation satellite guidance, but to what extent should it work
towards an independence from paying for access to them all? We may
have a fine heritage of space science and astronomy participation
as a small player, so why change current plans? What possible gain
can we make from better understanding the mysteries of the
universe?
Australia has had a history of sidelining space program
decisions and space issues. Australia has not gained a fair share
of space industry input into development of the international
Intelsat and Inmarsat communications consortia's satellite systems
that we pay to use. Our access to American Landsat, Radarsat and
French Spot remote sensing satellite systems has no guarantee of
continuing at low cost unless we achieve independent ability.
Similar considerations apply to overseas meteorological and
navigation satellite systems that Australia uses. Likewise, instead
of investigating the threat from rogue asteroids, we acted to close
down the only search in the Southern Hemisphere.
Yet Australia has had a long and very significant history of
involvement with world space programs(1)'(2)'(3). These have often
had a military basis concerning mostly American and British
agencies. Australia's inability to build on these activities has
been costly, resulting in missed opportunities such as building
successors to our initial satellite Wresat1. It made us the fourth
nation into orbit in 1967. Instead, we have maintained spacecraft
tracking stations for the American National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA), operated
astronomical observatories and participated in some space programs
through supporting research and payload provision.
Australia's dependence on natural resources and agriculture
spread over a vast land mass necessarily involves efficient use of
space applications such as remote sensing, navigation,
communications and science. A wide range of government, university
and private organisations apply satellite remote sensing data to
environmental studies, mapping and resource management uses. The
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO), the Australian Centre for Remote Sensing (ACRES) and the
Bureau of Meteorology have long had significant remote sensing
interests. Meteorological satellites provide essential information
on weather systems, sea surface temperatures and ocean currents,
particularly over areas that are relatively inaccessible. The
Bureau operates meteorological satellite receiving stations in
Melbourne, Perth, Darwin and Antarctica.
Telstra Corporation and Optus Communications handle most
satellite communications made through Intelsat or Inmarsat. The
Optus satellite system, formerly Aussat, provides significant
domestic linkages and broadcasting capabilities across the
continent. Ground stations operate in each capital city with major
gateways located in Perth and Sydney. The local network of the
United States Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite ground
stations has 14 sites to ensue system integrity, monitoring,
science and mapping. Satellites provide a means of determining
location anywhere in the world with the GPS allowing ships,
aircraft and mobile vehicles to track their locations with great
accuracy. As well, some satellites convey emergency signals to
enable search and rescue operations.
One of three major worldwide NASA tracking stations for
interplanetary probes, the Canberra Deep Space Communications
Complex at Tidbinbilla employs 150 British Aerospace Australia
staff. This facility sometimes links to the Parkes radiotelescope
and the Australia Telescope National Facility (ATNF) used for radio
astronomy. Mount Stromlo and the Anglo-Australian Observatory (AAO)
are major optical astronomy facilities. Other ground stations serve
the United States military satellite systems, such as the early
warning facility at Nurrungar near Woomera, the signals
intelligence station at Pine Gap near Alice Springs and Australia's
own defence satellite communications station located near
Geraldton. The Woomera range handles infrequent test launch
programs.
Uncertain liability has been a barrier to the commercial launch
services industry here. Current insurance premiums for launchers
range, from less than 1 per cent of value for pre-launch
activities, to 10 to 32 per cent for launch and orbit, and 1.5 to 4
per cent for in-orbit operations. The worldwide space risk
insurance capacity in 1997 reached $1400 million. Note that since
1957 there has been $7.7 billion in premiums and $6.9 billion paid
out by insurers. In 1997, Australian companies earned $100 million
in space insurance premium incomes from overseas business. The
market capacity for insurance appears adequate but with pressure on
premium rates and uncertain business from Asian satellite
launchers.
There remains an overall lack of space industry project
management and so the sector has a niche basis. The many proposed
but failed satellite and launch vehicle ventures are testament to
limited support here. Instead we have made large overseas
expenditures on Aussat satellite procurement and Intelsat and
Inmarsat access. Many reviews, committees and studies have only led
to low funding and a continuing lack of an official national space
policy. Other nations have found difficulty in dealing with us on
space sector issues. Access and cost in relation to remote sensing
data have become significant international issues as nations act to
realise the economic value of their space commercial services.
This paper outlines current national space activities and
administrative arrangements. The paper also examines the competing
international commercial satellite launch ventures. It covers the
evolution of a space industry policy for Australia and suggests
some future options. The discussion also covers the search for life
in space, an endeavour that provides a philosophical rationale for
initiatives in national space policy and programs. The paper
finally considers matters of space exploration and exploitation and
any benefits for society.
In 1996, the then Minister for Science and Technology, the Hon.
Peter McGauran considered a draft proposal for a new national space
agency. The proposal was rather weak and did not appear to be well
directed, so consequently it became necessary to draft a fresh
approach. Given that funding was scarce, it appeared that salvation
lay with an initiative linked to the Centenary of Federation in
2001 as a vision for the future. It was also necessary to build on
national research experience and industry capabilities with a
suitable but small demonstration project; i.e. Federation Satellite
1 (FedSat). In the 20 August 1996 Budget Statement, the Minister
announced the start of the FedSat program and changed the
prevailing administrative arrangements for space.
News followed later of Commonwealth support for building FedSat
through a new Cooperative Research Centre for Satellite Systems
(CRCSS). On 10 July 1997, Mr McGauran announced an initial program
grant of $20 million. A necessary part of the CRCSS context was
industry participation and contribution of $36 million over a seven
year timeframe. At last Australia had committed itself to a space
applications project that would demonstrate national capabilities,
to both its own people and markets around the world. Other changes
to space programs also occurred, as discussed ahead.
The CSIRO Office of Space Science and Applications (COSSA)
undertook development of the program and establishment of the CRCSS
in Canberra. With the official start of CRCSS operations on 1
January 1998, the core of COSSA staff transferred to the CRCSS. The
CRCSS partners include strong representation from the space
industry and the ARIES consortium (see later). The CRCSS has
research and development, education and training, engineering and
project management functions. The CRCSS is to have a broader role
than FedSat, covering the long-term strategic operational and
commercial role for satellites.
Small satellites such as FedSat represent the way ahead for
space science and technology in an era of tight economics and
efficiency. FedSat is to be a small, 50 kg satellite in a 500 to
1000 km orbit at 70 degrees high orbital inclination to the
equator. It will have various payloads including a magnetometer
experiment, a solar cell for space tests, provision for remote
sensing system applications, GPS science, communications and
computing systems. FedSat will use a proven space platform, with
local tests and possible launch by the Japanese Space Agency NASDA
as a piggyback payload, at minimal cost to Australia. Private
companies Auspace and Vipac will assemble and test FedSat before
its launch in 2001. Other partners in FedSat include the private
companies Mitec, D-Space and Optus; the Defence Science and
Technology Organisation (DSTO), and various universities. The main
teaching and research laboratories for FedSat development are in
Brisbane, at the Space Industry Development Centre for Satellite
Navigation at the Queensland University of Technology, and in
Adelaide at the Institute for Telecommunications Research at the
University of South Australia.
ARIES, the Australian Resource Information and Environment
Satellite is a commercial project for worldwide geological
exploration and mapping by a remote sensing satellite. The vehicle
is to be a small 480 kg satellite in polar orbit used for
specialised remote sensing with a two-dimensional image, multiple
narrow channel, single instrument. It has much higher image
capacity compared to the existing Spot or Landsat systems. With an
ability to re-image sites weekly and a three-year life, the craft
will use proprietary satellite platform and programs. The ARIES
consortium has many members including CSIRO, Auspace and the
Australian Centre for Remote Sensing. Other companies involved
include Earth Resource Mapping, Geoimage and Technical and Field
Surveys. With support from Macquarie Bank and Australian Taxation
Office allowances, the consortium completed a $1.2 million
feasibility study in 1997 and aims to launch in 2000, possibly
before FedSat.
Other private organisations also have an active interest in
satellite systems. The volunteer, non-profit Australian Space
Research Institute (ASRI) proposes launching a small amateur
satellite. ASRI brings together graduate students and space
professionals in a series of ongoing projects aimed at developing
an indigenous light launch vehicle and small satellite. A
Queanbeyan company, Electro Optic Systems, provides laser
reflectors for small Russian navigation satellites. Australian
company Codan produces satellite communications items. Among
overseas corporations active here, United States Rockwell is
expanding satellite technology work with an Asia-Pacific
headquarters in Sydney.
Australia has gained much experience in feasibility studies,
design, and management of space missions as a service provider(4).
FedSat may enable development of service supplier abilities as a
small step towards more demanding and complex launch projects, with
industry capacity as sub or prime contractor, and space
applications within a regional context. Australia's share of the
remote sensing industry market is about 5 per cent. It has a
capacity to grow substantially to over $500 million annually by the
year 2000(5). However, the share is widely dispersed among
government institutions and the private sector. Renewable resource
management and environmental monitoring offer much scope for the
industry to grow, as long as high quality data remain available at
reasonable access cost. Australian space-related research and
development and ARIES could assist in establishing a high
technology manufacturing base and contribute to improved resource
management.
Government space programs in many Asian nations have enabled
regional industry to become suppliers, not just users, of
commercial communications satellite systems. In a regional sense,
Asian nations are very active in space programs. Japan has
developed a technologically successful space program, at relatively
small development cost, in accordance with a systematic government
plan and budget that links to many industry participants(6). While
Japan and China lead in this regard, other countries such as Korea,
Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore have active small satellite
development programs. Remote sensing ground stations operate in a
number of regional countries, while several propose small satellite
programs, such as in India. Australia has a number of joint space
programs with Asian organisations in remote sensing activities and
other applications.
The market for launches derives from two principle requirements:
development of a new generation of mobile communications satellites
in low-Earth orbit and, high capacity satellite systems operating
in the higher geostationary Earth orbit. The new mobile
communications systems of many small, low-Earth orbit satellites
offer the prospect of global telecommunications by handheld
telephones, no matter where users call from on Earth(7)'(8). Growth
in national, direct-to-home TV broadcasting satellites include new
geostationary systems for several Asian nations. By the end of
1997, there were 95 civilian geostationary communications
satellites providing services to the region. Of these, some 24
satellites provide Australia with telecommunications or
broadcasting type coverage up to the power of the domestic Optus
satellite system(9).
While China and Russia remain the only current commercial launch
service providers in the region (Japan and India are not far
behind), other interests propose rocket flights from Australia. The
various recent competing launcher proposals for Australia comprise
the Kistler venture, the International Resource Corporation (IRC)
Soyuz program, the Space Transportation Systems (STS) plan, or
United Launch Systems (ULS) Unity rocket program. Together, they
represent possible investment here of $1.85 billion. Figure 1 shows
the location of the various proposed space launch sites around
Australia. It also depicts the sites of most of the other major
active space facilities mentioned previously.
The American Kistler effort involves a new reusable booster to
place 3200 kg into low-Earth-orbit. Kistler has a Space
Systems/Loral contract for 10 satellite launches from 1998 at over
$150 million. Kistler is set to go after tests from either Woomera
or Nevada. The Federal Government has approved use of Woomera and
is developing launch licences.
An Asia Pacific Space Centre at Weipa or Temple Bay on Cape
York, or on Christmas Island, involves an IRC deal with Starsem, a
Russian-French company that markets Soyuz rockets, along with
Korean interests. Starsem began in 1996 through Arianespace,
Aerospatiale of France and Russian agencies to offer Soyuz for
commercial missions. Starsem is to launch between 12 and 46
Globalstar mobile satellites for Loral from 1998. On 17 March 1998,
the Federal Government announced the Christmas Island plan, while
noting the stringent environmental assessment required before
approval.
STS with United Communications Public Company Ltd of Thailand,
proposed use of Proton vehicles, from Lockheed Martin and the
Krunichev State Research and Production Space Centre, as
International Launch Services of San Diego. They investigated
launching from Melville Island or Gunn Point. With Northern
Territory Government approval, STS began environmental assessment,
but later decided to study alternative sites. However, on 23
February 1998, STS withdrew from the project after the overseas
partners advised that they would not proceed with any Proton
launches from Australia, due to costs.
Figure 1. Australian Space Launch Site Proposals and
Space Support Facilities.
| Launch Sites: |
IRC-Soyuz: on Cape York Qld or
Christmas Island, Kistler-K1: Woomera SA, STS-Proton: Melville
Island or Gunn Point NT, and ULS-Unity: off Gladstone Qld. |
| Adelaide: |
DSTO, Institute for Telecommunications
Research-University of SA, British Aerospace Australia, Codan,
Vipac, Woomera (Nurrungar), NT-Pine Gap. |
| Brisbane: |
Space Centre Satellite
Navigation-University of Queensland., S.C.Microwave
Technology-Griffith University, Qld. Univ. of Technology, Geoimage,
Mitec. |
| Canberra: |
NASA Canberra Deep Space
Communications Complex, ADFA, ACRES, CSIRO-COSSA-CRC, ANU, Auspace,
Electro-Optics, Departments. |
| Melbourne: |
Bureau of Meteorology, KEL Aerospace,
LaTrobe Univ., Sigtec. |
| Sydney: |
Optus, Telstra, D-Space, Hawker de
Havilland, Spot, TFS, Universities. |
| Perth: |
Telstra, Optus, ERM, Universities,
Geraldton Defence Satellite Station. |
Source: DIST Space Policy Unit (with permission).
ULS, a company linked to STS, intends using the Russian Unity
launch vehicle on Hummock Hill Island near Gladstone. However,
details remain sketchy at present. Among earlier initiatives,
KIT-Comm Pty Ltd, an Australian-owned joint venture between Kennett
International Technology Pty Ltd of Queensland and several private
investors signed an agreement in 1993 with AeroAstro of the United
States for two launches of communications data satellites from a
site near Darwin. Also in that year, the EuroPacific Capital Group
consortium of Sydney reputedly investigated the viability of a new
Cape York launch site. However, the status of both projects and
some others remains unclear(10). Russia's Cosmos Group previously
planned a Seagull booster to fire 1000 kg to low-Earth orbit from
Woomera or Northern Australia. There have been other schemes as
well.
It is apparent that some competing launcher projects overseas
are closer to fruition(11). The Boeing Commercial Space Company is
a joint-venture partner in Sea Launch Ltd, which intends to fire
Russian rockets from a large mobile platform near the Pacific
Island nation of Kiribati. With its Odyssey platform and support
vessel complete, the $925 million venture has over 15 confirmed
launch orders from American interests. The first launch, a Hughes
PanAmSat communications satellite, is to be in late 1998. Kiribati
itself had hoped to develop one of its islands as a spaceport with
Japanese interests. The Odyssey could make polar orbital launches
from some 1400 km off the West Coast of California. Sea Launch will
fire Ukrainian Zenit rockets with Russian third stages to carry 5
tonne payloads into the geostationary orbit. The launch pad was
originally an oilrig subsequently modified in Norway and Russia.
The command ship was built in Scotland and fitted out in Russia
while a homeport is now ready on an old naval station at Long
Beach, California.
Launch Regulation
In 1996 the Minister for Industry, Science and Tourism, the Hon.
John Moore, granted the STS project 'Major Projects Facilitation
Status'. The Minister's Department of Industry, Science and Tourism
(DIST) assisted STS in identifying the project approvals required,
and coordinating the activities of the various approval agencies to
facilitate a decision. Approvals required included foreign
investment through the Foreign Acquisitions and Takeovers Act
1975, environmental approvals in the Environment
Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974, and satellite
launch licences under new legislation that will cover issues of
Commonwealth involvement and liability relating to United Nations
Space Treaties. (Refer to Appendix for a list of international
space agreements and resolutions).
On 12 December 1997 the Minister announced the new legislation
aimed at regulating a space launch industry. A framework for
commercial launches of satellites from Australian soil, the
legislation is to cover liability issues and licensing requirements
to ensure that all launch activities occur in accordance with
international law. The Bill includes matters of licensing,
insurance, launch site approval, space object registration, range
safety, fees and liability. The Space Policy Unit (SPU) within DIST
covers these policy matters.
Further aspects expected to be covered by the above legislation
include: payload compliance checking, overseas liaison, insurance
needs, public health, range safety officer powers, the role of the
Civil Aviation Safety Authority and that of the Bureau of Air
Safety Investigation in matters relating to airspace safety(12).
There may be provision for the wholesale sales tax of 22 per cent
payable by all rockets successfully leaving Australia! It may also
be a good idea to have an initial fee waiver to help start the
industry. Each launch licence should have two parts: the first for
recurring factors such as vehicle types, site and operations
approval; the second for the mission specific launch
trajectories.
The Australian Defence Force (ADF) is to contract for the design
and construction of a satellite communications payload for launch
on the Optus-C1 satellite in 2000. Until now, our defence agencies
have leased communications space, notably from the Optus system and
United States military satellites. The ADF Joint Project 2008 could
amount to $500 million for a global broadcast system but there are
apparently no guarantees of use of the local industry. Further
information may provide details on this important aspect of space
development, should there be a decision to build a dedicated
Australian defence satellite.
The Australian Contingency Plan for Space Re-Entry Debris sets
in place arrangements to be followed by all Federal and State
Government agencies for coordinating the actions involved in
locating, recovering and dealing with the effects of radioactive
space debris. Emergency Management Australia is the Commonwealth
Government's agency having responsibility for emergency management
of space debris across all portfolios and reports to the Minister
for Defence. More than 7000 sizeable items orbit the Earth and the
last threat to Australia came on the re-entry of the Russian
Mars-96 probe. The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space has a program to review debris in space, through use of
mathematical models to track objects and mitigation and protection
measures. Australia has representation on the Committee.
Australia has treaty level agreements with many governments for
space programs(13). It has one with the United States for the NASA
Space Vehicle Tracking and Communications Facilities, ballooning
and sub-orbital small rocket campaigns. Another is with ESA for a
cooperative space-tracking program. We cooperate with the France
for the establishment and use of the Precise Satellite Location
Beacon System and the launching and tracking of balloons. Australia
and Russia agree to cooperate in space research and we have a
Memorandum of Understanding with China for cooperation in the
fields of space commerce and technology. A similar commercial
agreement exists with Japan and with the Federal Republic of
Germany for the landing and recovery of the Express capsule. On 24
September 1994, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) adopted the Beijing
declaration on space technology applications for environmentally
sound and sustainable development in Asia and the Pacific. A
review of the ESCAP efforts occurs in 1999 (Refer to the Appendix
on page 17 onwards for a complete transcription of the declaration
proposing a cooperative program of space activities including
satellite meteorology, remote sensing, communications and
education).
Given our history of involvement in British and later European
space programs, as well as a continuing support role in NASA
activities, one might have expected that Australia would have moved
beyond its peripheral role. Australia has made a great effort
towards its astronomy programs. We built the simple satellites,
Wresat in 1967 and Australis-Oscar 5 in 1970. We built skills in
spacecraft tracking, rocket systems, satellite communications,
through the Aussat and now Optus Communications satellites, and in
remote sensing. However, successive governments only committed
small funds towards a space program and its high technology
industries, and might be said to have regarded space as a high-risk
arena and Cold War relic. The allocation of direct space funds
ceased in July 1996; the current Australian Government has used
existing funding mechanisms, and directed them to a practical
demonstration program, through the Cooperative Research Centre
program. The Government has stated goals for Australia: to be a
player on the international scene and to build scientific and
industrial capacity through innovative, modest space missions.
After establishment of the Australian Space Office (ASO) in
1987, successive Federal Budgets only provided around $4 million
per year for the so-called non-CSIRO National Space Program (NSP),
to total $30.2 million over 1985-1992. This was around a third of
the amount spent by the CSIRO on space (mainly astronomy) over that
period, with 240 full time positions including the ATNF and science
programs. The establishment of the Australian Space Council (ASC)
in 1993 came as a result of the 1992 Curtis review of the NSP. In
July 1995 the Commonwealth announced an Interdepartmental Committee
on International Space Review of the NSP with wide bureaucratic
representation. It reported favourably in 1996 on the economic
basis of national space capability, evaluating the NSP and its
administrative structures. In its submission, the Australian
Academy of Science lamented the limited space program and
recommended that the Federal Government support it with $20 million
per year. The Institution of Engineers Australia believed that a
local space industry had failed to flourish because Australian
companies had no significant domestic space programs on which to
build a critical mass of expertise and support. In the
Institution's estimation, Australia was continuing to pay over $600
million each year for overseas space services. Later funding for
the NSP was $5.4 million in 1992-93, $5.5 million for 1993-94, and
$9.26 million ($3 million carryover) for 1994-95. These funds were
to terminate in June 1996 after a full review by the new
Government. Despite there being six favourable Australian reports
on space over the previous decade and despite the existence of the
ASC and ASO, with expenditure of $60 million, the NSP wilted from
lack of government commitment. There were also other problems
within the administration of both ASO and CSIRO relating to
budgetary arrangements and technical skill levels(14). The new
Government terminated the ASC and ASO to replace them by the small
Space Policy Unit within DIST and created the FedSat program under
CSIRO's auspices. The 1997-98 Budget provided $0.7 million for the
NSP plus the $20 million FedSat funding pledge.
Several programs had dominated NSP funding. The NSP provided $10
million for the Australian Endeavour space telescope, built by
Auspace and others, to fly twice on the NASA Space Shuttle as an
industry and astronomy demonstration project. The Along Track
Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) was an $11 million project for Auspace
and British Aerospace Australia to build and use a remote-sensing
instrument, launched on the European ERS-2 spacecraft. Auspace won
a $4 million contract for parts of the next (Advanced) AATSR, due
for launch in 1999. The NSP provided up to $0.5 million per annum,
for each of three Space Industry Development Centres handling
Signal Processing, Microwave Technology and Satellite Navigation.
There were also other smaller projects for satellites and data
systems accounting for the remaining NSP funding. Industry
benefited from all of these programs (see page 4). Among major
proposals for funding were space systems and launchers. The
Atmospheric Pressure Sensor (APS) was a proposal for a locally
developed remote sensing instrument, but uncertain funding
cancelled the program, following a $1.7 million feasibility study.
The APS required around $15 million to develop fully. The ASO and
Russian companies long studied the feasibility of launching
satellites from Australia, without much visible result, apart from
much travel by delegations between each nation. The Russian
Radioastron space telescope did have local participation through
CSIRO with ASO funding support. The 1996 Federal Budget allocated
$2.6 million to enable continued operation of two of the Space
Industry Development Centres, completion of components of the AATSR
work, hypersonic research at the University of Queensland,
Australian National University and the Australian Defence Force
Academy, and provided funds for the ARIES feasibility study.
It is important that these capabilities achieved in the past are
built upon for national benefit. Industry proponents set a vision
fifteen years into the future, which is necessary given the
timelines required to complete space programs(15). Their vision
identifies key space applications, supported by an indigenous
industrial capacity, that enables the export of high technology.
Specific aspects include local industry providing a set proportion
of communications satellite requirements, a share in remote
sensing, contribution to world space meteorology and space science,
development of satellite terminal markets and a launch capability.
The communications requirement includes an industry share in
Intelsat and Inmarsat programs to which Australia contributes but
utilises only overseas-built systems. Local companies could form as
consortia or look for industry market niches.
A Space Industry Policy is under development in 1998 by DIST.
The policy may state objectives (targets and benchmarks),
government role, responsibilities (e.g. to ESCAP) and sectoral
considerations (industry input must be strong and cooperative).
Another matter for Australia to consider is that of regional
cooperation in an Asia Pacific Space Forum and international
obligations such as the ESCAP Beijing Declaration and United Nation
agreements and treaties. By comparison, Britain aims to develop a
fully competitive earth observation industry by 2005, a strong
science program and links within ESA, etc. American space policy
aims to answer the big questions of safe aviation, public
communication and international cooperation, planetary formation,
life and environments.
The eternal question of whether there is life in space may
appear rather arcane, but in fact the matter interests many people
here and around the world. The official search for
extra-terrestrial intelligence (SETI) is a scientific venture that
uses radio and optical telescopes to listen for possible signals
produced by life elsewhere in space. While so far the search has
been fruitless, that important result in itself suggests the
uniqueness of our place in the Cosmos. Our institutions have had
some official and amateur involvement in SETI programs through
CSIRO, the SETI Institute, SETI Australia and The Planetary
Society. Some opponents to SETI argue that its hypothesis of life
is unavoidably Earth-centric and non-falsifiable. In other words,
if nothing is found, the question remains unanswered. Planetary
exploration has an inspirational aspect that attracts talented
professionals and youngsters alike. It seeks answers to the
question of life in the universe, as an affirmation of the human
spirit. However, Australia's contributions to planetary science
have been minimal apart from several scientists involved in
space-related geology and mathematics.
One investigation seeks out life on the planet Mars. Following
the sensational announcement by some NASA scientists in 1996 of the
existence of fossilised remains in Martian meteorites, considerable
debate has ensued as to proof of simple Martian lifeforms. The
original evidence, using geochemical analyses and scanning electron
microscope imaging of portions of a meteorite collected in
Antarctica, identified chemicals, structure, grains and minerals of
a type that together suggested biological processes. However,
opposing investigations suggested complex inorganic mechanisms for
the identified characteristics, perhaps due to Martian hydrothermal
systems along with terrestrial contamination. In early 1998
separate researchers identified the claimed Martian lifeforms as
being terrestrial in origin, based on isotopic and amino acid
compositions. Australian scientists are active in assessing life in
thermal springs such as found on Mars.
According to local planetary scientist Dr Malcolm Walter,
Australia is well placed to make highly targeted, influential and
effective contributions, but is contributing little at present. We
have opportunities to achieve some of the benefits to society that
other nations in this program consider worthwhile. Included among
benefits that could flow to us are: technology transfer, new
educational opportunities for students at all levels and
inspiration that could lead more good students into science and
engineering. NASA has now focussed a major part of its program on
this issue under the $1.5 billion, five year Origins Program, and
as a result there is a good chance that within a few years we could
know if there was once life on Mars or elsewhere. Specific
contributions that Australia can make include provision of a very
high level of experience in satellite mapping for minerals and
rocks on the surface of Mars; highly specialised instruments to go
to Mars; theoretical and empirical 'models' of the formation of the
type of deposits in which fossils could be found; and a very high
level of expertise in finding and recognising fossil evidence of
bacterial life.
In the process of exploring Mars we can learn a great deal about
the Earth because in many ways the two planets are twins. For
instance, Mars may provide profoundly significant information
relevant to understanding the workings of the Earth's atmosphere,
and to the formation of many of our most valuable mineral deposits.
Beneath the surface of Mars temperatures are higher, water is
liquid, and there could still be bacteria living there. Biologists
are just now learning about what appears to be a bacterial
ecosystem underground on Earth. Similar considerations apply to the
study of other planets.
According to astrophysicist Dr Ray Norris of the ATNF there is
no firm evidence of extraterrestrial life in our own Solar System.
If life forms are found on Mars there are implications for life on
other planets as to whether life is a frequently occurring process.
If there are many Earth-like planets and if life forms usually
evolve towards civilisation, then there should be many
civilisations. There is now evidence for planets around other stars
using indirect techniques, such as searching for a wobble in stars,
that reveal whether a planet is present and its size. Perhaps some
ten per cent of stars have planetary systems. As a result of SETI
work, technically advanced Earth-like civilisations on the nearest
few stars now seem unlikely, although there may be other types of
civilisations, especially on more distant stars. There may well be
a profound impact on Earth if we detect something. In this case, an
international scientific SETI protocol exists to determine our next
move in space.
However, we may not be around to consider how best to respond,
given the dangers existing to Earth from orbiting natural space
debris. A number of studies have determined that a very real chance
exists for some natural space object to strike the planet with
disastrous consequences, as has happened occasionally in the
past(16). Spaceguard is an international project to search for
asteroids and comets that may threaten life on Earth or seriously
disrupt human activities. Australian support for the effort ceased
in 1996, despite the relatively low cost and international
importance that the search has gained. NASA and the United States
defence forces hope that their Near Earth Asteroid Tracking program
will detect any surprise visitors to our planet. An estimated 6000
such bodies remain undetected and yet could wreak extensive havoc,
if not causing total annihilation. Let us hope that our chance for
continued existence in the Cosmos is not lost to a large piece of
rocky ice. An observing program based in the Southern Hemisphere
would be worthwhile.
In the meantime, Australia is to participate in the major
international astronomical Gemini Project, involving observing time
on two powerful optical-infrared telescopes located in Hawaii and
Chile. When completed in 2000, these telescopes will enable
observations into the past up to 10 billion light years ago and
will complement the recent, amazing discoveries of the orbiting
Hubble Space Telescope. Funding for our involvement comes through
the Australian Research Council and DIST that will support
university, AAO and other participants to the amount of $13.6
million over the next 5 years plus up to $1 million in annual
operating costs: a national share of 4.7 per cent towards capital
funding. With investments in Gemini, the AAO, gravity-wave
detectors and other astronomical observatories, Australia is well
positioned to participate in a golden age of astronomy.
Can we all expect to tour in Earth's orbit in the near future
perhaps staying at a space hotel, or cruise the spaceways in a
liner? Some believe that the space tourism era is here now. With
the development of international standards for airspace traffic
control, trade, and routes for transport, such as those that exist
for airlines, then 'spacelines' may follow, they believe. National
and international policies to encourage market growth and
investment through a global spaceways forum may well set the
policy, standards, regulations and protocols for the future. Past
Cold War era space programs excluded public participation. There
are thus no space policies to allow public involvement and market
development. Governments may have an economic public welfare role
to encourage private investment in the space sector for long term
benefit. Space development with public involvement may be a
necessary policy vision.
There are a number of private initiatives in space tourism now
in development. Back in the 1980s travel company Society
Expeditions offered registrations of interest in its Seattle-based
Space Travel Company, attracting 250 personal deposits of
$10 770 each, subsequently returned, for the $76 900
flight. Now also in Seattle, Zegrahm Space Voyages has started
taking $13 850 deposits from budding passengers expecting to
fly in space by 2001. Zegrahm and Vela Technology intend to
manufacture small, jet-like vehicles to enable the $150 770
trips into orbit. Another group, Pioneer Rocketplane, has similar
plans, while Interglobal Space Lines now offer zero-gravity flights
over the Mojave Desert. Space Adventures offers tourists the chance
to experience weightlessness and a trip to the edge of space. For
$8460, people can experience a few minutes of zero gravity in
flights on a modified Russian aircraft. For $18 300, they can now
soar 24 km up in a Russian jet. The Boeing Company may have led the
way for the appropriate technological development strategy through
the series of demonstration flights made by its Delta Clipper DC-X
vertical take off and landing rocket. After successful tests, in
1995 NASA aimed for a reusable launch vehicle to replace Space
Shuttle type operations through rapid turnaround and prototype use.
Lockheed Martin now continues development of the X-33/VentureStar
reusable vehicle slated for first launch in 1999, subject to the
continuation of funds.
Some take a less sanguine view of the prospects for space
tourism, seeing it as an over-hyped marketing ploy. While a market
may exist, no one as yet appears to have a launch vehicle capable
of safely carrying humans to orbit and back. Most of the competing
projects have in mind the $15 million X-Prize supposedly offered
for the first privately financed, entirely reusable vehicle able to
carry two humans into orbit twice within a two week period. Others
like Shimizu of Japan envisage an orbiting space hotel for 200
guests. Space aficionados may expect to soar in orbit by the turn
of the century, though at a price. They may remember the futuristic
scenes aboard the concave Hilton Hotel, inside the orbiting Space
Station as featured in the classic movie 2001: A Space
Odyssey. A feature of the Hotel was automatic vending machines
and videophones that now appear almost commonplace. Dreams of space
tourism may come about, but it is a matter of waiting for the DC-X
or VentureStar to orbit.
Space Exploitation and
Application
An Australian sociologist in science and technology studies
postulates that space exploration could lead to ecologically
polluted planets with subservient populations controlled by
imperialist multi-global corporations. This view dismisses
economic, military or populist models of space development as
demonstrating no need to go into space at all(17). It sees the
international treaties mentioned above as imperialist and favouring
prospectors. Others assert that the possible imperialist outcome
requires greater input now by the public and environmental
organisations, despite their current opposition to any proposed
launch sites. Space exploration can combine a frontier approach
with images of social democracy and utopian vision that do not
necessarily sit well with the realities of social divisions,
economic inequities and unethical cultural injustices on Earth. In
this view, space exploration might better concern discovery,
learning and intellectualism rather than materialism, colonisation
and damaging exploitation(18).
Public space education and awareness programs provide an
important way for nations to develop their technical expertise. The
British Millennium Commission supports an educational small
satellite program through the Millennium Satellite Centre, while
the United States has a myriad of such activities. Here, without
coordination, the Centre for Australian Space Education, the annual
Australian International Space School, the Australian Astronaut
Academy, the National Space Society of Australia and its annual
conferences, The Planetary Society and independent space advocacy
groups have assisted in their own ways. Tertiary institutions offer
space science and engineering programs, while some also link to the
France-based International Space University and its
multi-disciplinary, multi-campus programs. However in Australia,
unlike elsewhere, there has been little academic study of space
policy matters, with no academic institution specialising in the
field. Space promotion remains uncoordinated and without focus.
While most of humanity remains in poverty due to prevailing
social ethos, economic policies and government maladministration,
space science and technology have enabled improvements in the
quality of life around the world. After adopting scientific
programs, India and China have become self-sufficient in food
production and have also benefited from strong space technology
efforts particularly in communications and remote sensing. Long
lead times necessitate strong financial planning, training and
international cooperation. Initial satellite procurement abroad
enables later versions to be developed internally. The first
(Russian) modules of the International Space Station will reach
orbit from mid-1998 to set the scene for space cooperation into the
next century. An Australian is now orbiting the Earth in the ageing
Russian 'Mir' Space Station. The opportunity exists for Australia
to play a vital part in this and other space activities and reap
the benefits.
-
- James, M.L., 'History of Australia's Space Involvement',
Australia and Space, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No.
94, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National
University, Canberra, 1992, pp. 122-143.
-
- Dougherty, K.A. & James, M.L., Space Australia: The story
of Australia's involvement in space, Powerhouse Publishing,
Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, 1993.
-
- Prytz, J., Australia in the Space Age: Past, Present &
Future, Information Guide No. 15, Parliamentary Library Information
Service, Department of the Parliamentary Library, Parliament of
Australia, Canberra, October 1995.
-
- Middleton, B.S., 'FedSat: Aiming For The Right Orbit?',
Proceedings: The Eleventh National Space Engineering Symposium, 26
February 1997, University of New South Wales, Sydney, The
Institution of Engineers Australia, Canberra, pp. 1-12.
-
- Australian Space Office, Observing Australia: The Role of
Remote Sensing in a Balanced National Space Program, Department of
Industry, Technology and Commerce, Canberra, 1992.
-
- Hee, C.H., Soo, K.J. & Hwan, K.T., 'Lessons from the
Japanese space development policy: from follower to independent
developer', Science and Public Policy, Vol. 24, No. 4, Guildford,
August 1997, pp. 223-232.
-
- James, M.L., Asian Satellites Broadcasting Pay TV to Australia,
Research Note No. 22, 1996-97, Information and Research Services,
Department of the Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia,
Canberra, December 1996.
-
- James, M.L., Billions and billions of dollars in orbit: global
links for mobile phones, Research Note No. 38 1996-97, Information
and Research Services, Department of the Parliamentary Library,
Parliament of Australia, Canberra, March 1997.
-
- Cratt, G., The Practical Guide to Satellite TV, AV-COMM Pty
Ltd, Balgowlah, 1996, 116pp.
-
- Clark, P. (ed.), Jane's Space Directory, 13th edition 1997-98,
Jane's Information Group, Surrey, 1997.
-
- Wilson, A. (ed.), Jane's Space Directory, 12th edition 1996-97,
Jane's Information Group, Surrey, 1996.
-
- James, M.L., Airspace Safety: Air Traffic Control and Airline
Operations in Australia, Background Paper No. 10 1997-98,
Information and Research Services, Department of the Parliamentary
Library, Parliament of Australia, Canberra, December 1997.
-
- Australian Space Council, Annual Report 1994-95, AGPS,
Canberra, 31 May 1996.
-
- Deeker, W. 'COSSA: vision and perseverance', Space Industry
News, CSIRO Office of Space Science and Applications, No. 77,
Canberra, 1997, pp. 3-9.
-
- Stapinski, T., 'A Space Policy for Australia', Australia and
Space, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No. 94, Strategic
and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University,
Canberra, 1992, pp. 343-359.
-
- Brown, G. & James, M.L., Comet and Asteroid Impacts: does
Earth need protection?, Current Issues Brief No. 15 1994-95,
Parliamentary Research Service, Department of the Parliamentary
Library, Parliament of Australia, Canberra, August 1994.
-
- Marshall, A., 'Development and imperialism in space', Space
Policy, Vol. 11, No. 1, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, February,
1995, pp. 41-52.
-
- Rao, U.R., 'Establishing the Organisational and Institutional
Infrastructure for a National Space Program', Seminars of the
United Nations Program on Space Applications, Selected Papers on
Remote Sensing, Satellite Communications and Space Science, No. 5,
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, Vienna 1994, pp. 13-
30.
International Space Agreements and
United Nations General Assembly Resolutions
The 1966 Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities
of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies of 27 January 1967, provides that space exploration
will occur for the equal benefit of all countries.
The 1967 Agreement on the
Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space
of 22 April 1968, provides for assistance to crews.
The 1971 Convention on International
Liability for Damage Caused by Space
Objects of 29 March 1972, provides that the launching State is
liable for damage to another State.
The 1974 Convention on
Registration of Objects Launched into
Outer Space of 12 December 1976, provides that launching
States will maintain registries of space objects for inclusion in a
central United Nations register. Apparently Australia has not done
this task.
The 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on
the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies elaborates in more specific terms on the 1967 Outer
Space Treaty.
The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities
of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space, adopted
in 1963, set forth the basis of international space law.
The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial
Earth Satellites for International Direct Television
Broadcasting, adopted in 1982 considers political, social,
economic and cultural implications of broadcasting services.
The Principle Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from
Space, adopted in 1986 states that such activities should
benefit all countries, respect sovereignties and resource
rights.
The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources
in Outer Space, adopted in 1992, requires design of such
systems to minimise radiation exposure in case of accident.
As well, on 13 December 1996, the United Nations adopted a
Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and
Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All
States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing
Countries.
The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
considers all of these issues. Earlier United Nations' resolutions
relating to the exploration and peaceful use of outer space date
from 12 December 1959, 20 December 1961 and 13 December 1963.
Beijing Declaration on Space
Technology Applications for Environmentally Sound and Sustainable
Development in Asia and the Pacific
We, the members and associate members of the United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific ESCAP, convening at the Ministerial Conference on
Space Applications for Development in Asia and the Pacific held in
Beijing on 23 and 24 September 1994,
Bearing in mind that space technology applications are
gaining an ever-increasing significance in everyday life and are
playing an ever greater role, not only for developed countries, but
also for the developing world, in promoting environmentally sound
and sustainable development;
Reaffirming the commitments to the provisions contained
in the United Nations Charter and relevant international convention
and instruments on the peaceful use of space technology for the
benefit of mankind, and Guided by the various decisions,
recommendations and resolutions adopted by different United Nations
forums and other forums, on the peaceful use of space technology
for the benefits of mankind, among others:
(i) Commission resolution 49/5 of 29 April 1993 on the regional
programs on space applications for development;
(ii) Agenda 21 of June 1992, which is a program of action for a
global partnership for sustainable development worldwide;
(iii) Commission resolution 4X/1 of 23 April 1992 on the
declaration on enhancing regional economic cooperation;
(iv) Recommendation of the Commission at its forty-eighth
session to initiate a space applications program in the ESCAP
region;
(v) Ministerial Declaration on Environmentally Sound and
Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific adopted by the
Ministerial-level Conference on Environment and Development in Asia
and the Pacific in October 1990, and the Regional Strategy on
Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development endorsed by the
Commission in its resolution 47/7 of 10 April 1991;
(vi) Commission resolution 47/8 of 10 April 1991 on the regional
cooperation and coordination in remote sensing and geographic
information systems;
(vii) General Assembly resolution 41/65 of 3 December 1986 on
principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from outer
space;
(viii) UNISPACE '82, August 1982 which provides a blueprint for
effectively realising the potential benefits from space science,
technology and their applications for socioeconomic development,
particularly in the developing world; and
(ix) General Assembly resolutions 1472 (XIV) of 12 December
1959, 1721 (XVI) of 20 December 1961 and 1962 (XVI11) of 13
December 1963 relating to the exploration and peaceful use of outer
space.
Realising that currently there is a global concern
regarding natural resources depletion and environmental degradation
which calls for taking a holistic view of natural resources and the
environment through better scientific understanding of the
problems;
Recognising that space technology applications have
been of immense benefit to natural resources management,
environmental monitoring, development planning, education and human
resource development in both developed and developing
countries;
Considering that there is an ever-increasing interest
in the comprehensive use of a wide spectrum of space technologies,
including satellite remote sensing and geographic information
systems (GIS), satellite meteorology, satellite communications,
global positioning systems, and environmental and disaster
monitoring systems, to assist in poverty alleviation and address
information needs in environmentally sound and sustainable
development planning process;
Noting that members and associate members of ESCAP have
already developed infrastructure for applications of the new
technologies in their national development projects and
planning;
Agreeing that space applications are becoming an
essential element in environmentally sound and sustainable
development planning process and in addressing national and
regional problems and that their importance will keep growing with
time, thereby leading to investments in capability-building for
increasing dimensions of space technologies and their applications,
which will ultimately promote industrial development and economic
growth;
Comprehending that the benefits from these investments
would become more cost-effective and accessible if the members and
associate members of ESCAP could pool their resources and
collaborate in using space technology for development purposes;
Also noting that the problems confronting the members
and associate members of ESCAP usually transcend national
boundaries and that to tackle them on a long-term and sustainable
basis would require cooperation among countries of the region:
Understanding that regional cooperation and
coordination are important complements to individual national
activities to enable different countries in Asia and the Pacific to
share their experience and expertise to solve problems of a similar
nature:
Taking into account a number of initiatives in recent
years proposing various regional cooperation schemes and
coordination mechanisms for harnessing space technologies for the
solution of regional problems and applications of space
technologies for environmentally sound and sustainable
development;
Acknowledging the excellent efforts of the United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP) in building up regional confidence in using space
technology for sustainable natural resources and environmental
management through its UNDP-funded Regional Remote Sensing
Program;
Also realising that there is an urgent need for a
regional strategy to harmonise the various activities in space
technology applications and to enhance cooperation among members
and associate members of ESCAP and the institutions both within and
outside the United Nations system in space applications for
sustainable development;
Recognising the national competence of members and
associate members to formulate, adopt and implement their
respective policies on space technology applications for
development, mindful of their social, economic and political
conditions;
Hereby reaffirm that the members and associate members
of ESCAP, in accordance with the recommendations of UNISPACE '82,
have the right to the exploration and peaceful use of outer space
and to the use of space technologies for their natural resources
and environmental management and sustainable development
planning;
Agree that space technology and its applications and
spin-offs have immense benefits for sustainable social and economic
development and as such the rights of the members and associate
members to space technology development and applications must be
fulfilled so as to meet equitably the developmental and
environmental needs of the present and future generations;
Assent that in order to achieve environmentally sound
and sustainable development in accordance with the principles laid
down by the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development under
Agenda 21, the members and associate members of ESCAP should
integrate space technology and applications into the national
development planning process;
Also agree that to ensure cooperation and harmonisation
of activities and to work for economical, sustainable and equitable
access to space technology and its applications, the members and
associate members of ESCAP shall establish a regional cooperation
program on space applications for development in the region;
Adopt the overall approach and thrust of the strategy
for regional cooperation in space applications for sustainable
development finalised by the preparatory meeting of senior
officials on space applications for development, held in Beijing
from 19 to 22 September 1994, which is designed to promote national
capability-building in the countries in the ESCAP region through a
regional approach to make increasing use of space technologies for
addressing the urgent problems confronting them, including those
identified in Agenda 21;
Endorse the action plan on space applications for
sustainable development in the ESCAP region, also finalised during
the preparatory meeting of senior officials which identifies
national and regional activities to promote space technology
applications for natural resource accounting, environmental
management, poverty alleviation and sustainable development
planning:
Declare that the Regional Space Applications Program
for Environmentally Sound and Sustainable Development in Asia and
the Pacific is now launched, based on the strategy and the action
plan adopted and endorsed under this Declaration, with immediate
effect;
Urge all members and associate members of ESCAP,
bilateral and multilateral donors and international organisations
to support the strategy for regional cooperation in space
applications for sustainable development and the action plan on
space applications for sustainable development in Asia and the
Pacific and facilitate the formation and strengthening of the
national and regional mechanisms for space technology applications
in the region;
Call upon all members and associate members of ESCAP to
participate actively in the Regional Space Applications Program for
Sustainable Development, and to reconstitute the Inter-governmental
Consultative Committee (ICC) on the ESCAP Regional Remote Sensing
Program, defining its modus operandi and new mandates to cover
matters relating to the Regional Space Applications Program for
Sustainable Development;
Recommend that to generate policy-level interest in
space technology applications for environmentally sound and
sustainable development and to help in greater understanding and
wider use by the various programs of ESCAP of this new technology
and its applications for environmentally sound and sustainable
development, one of the future annual sessions of the Commission
should include a specific agenda item on space technology
applications for environmentally sound and sustainable
development;
Further request the Executive Secretary to convene a
second Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable
Development in Asia and the Pacific in 1999 to review regional
development efforts under the strategy and the action plan on space
applications for sustainable development in the ESCAP region
endorsed by the present Conference.
-
-
- Source. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific, United Nations Building. Rajdamnern Avenue,
Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
Acronyms
| (A)ATSR |
(Advanced) Along Track Scanning
Radiometer development program. |
| APS |
Atmospheric Pressure Sensor remote
sensing instrument proposal. |
| ARIES |
Australian Resource Information and
Environment Satellite project. |
| ASO/C |
Australian Space Office/Council
formerly in control of space policy. |
| ASRI |
Australian Space Research Institute
amateur rocket and satellite group. |
| ATNF |
Australian Telescope National Facility
used for radio astronomy. |
| COSSA |
CSIRO Office of Space Science and
Applications that begat CRCSS. |
| CRCSS |
Cooperative Research Centre for
Satellite Systems oversees FedSat. |
| CSIRO |
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation. |
| DIST |
Department of Industry, Science and
Tourism for Australia. |
| ESA |
European Space Agency representing 14
member nations. |
| ESCAP |
United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and Pacific. |
| FedSat |
Federation Satellite One project
administered by CRCSS. |
| Inmarsat |
International Maritime Satellite
Organisation for communications. |
| Intelsat |
International Telecommunications
Satellite Organisation. |
| IRC |
International Resource Corporation, a
Russian-French-Korean venture. |
| Landsat |
Earth-resources applications
technology satellite of the United States. |
| NASA |
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration of the United States. |
| NSP |
National Space Program formerly
promoted by ASO and ASC. |
| SETI |
Search for extra-terrestrial
intelligence or signals from life in space. |
| Spot |
Systme Probatoire d'Observation de la
Terre satellite of France. |
| SPU |
Space Policy Unit with DIST
administers commercial launch policy |
| STS |
Space Transportation System
American-Thai satellite launch venture. |
| ULS |
United Launch Systems proposal linked
to STS to launch satellites. |
| Wresat |
Weapons Research Establishment
Satellite launched by Australia 1967. |