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One Step Forward: Two Steps Back? Women and Affirmative Action:
A case study of the Victorian Teaching Service
Dr Margaret Malloch
Consultant to Social Policy Group
Tables
- Table 1. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Primary Division, Victoria, 1978 to 1994
- Table 2. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Secondary Division, Victoria, 1971 to 1988
- Table 3. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Technical Division, Victoria, 1970 to 1988
- Table 4. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Post-Primary/Secondary Schools, Victoria, 1989 to 1994
- Table 5. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Secondary and Technical Schools, Victoria, 1981 to 1988
- Table 6. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Post-Primary Schools, Victoria, 1989 to 1994
- Table 7. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Primary Schools, Victoria, 1983 to 1990
- Table 8. Women in Classified Teaching Positions:
Primary Schools, Victoria, 1991 to 1994
The effectiveness of affirmative action programs is currently being
questioned in both Australia and America. A case study of the Victorian
Teaching Service illustrates many of the concerns increasingly being raised.
As the tables in this paper show (also see Appendix 1), while the percentages
of women in promotion positions in the Victorian Teaching Service have
fluctuated, women have neither rushed into, nor been able to obtain, positions
of greater status and responsibility in education in significant numbers
as a result of Affirmative Action policies and plans. In the primary division,
in 1978, 28 per cent of school principal positions were held by women;
in 1994, 18 per cent. In secondary schools, in 1971, 20 per cent of principal
positions were held by women; by 1994, 15.9 per cent. Women now form approximately
48 per cent of secondary teachers and 75 per cent of primary teachers.
The figures for women in the teaching service as a whole, and in promotion
positions, have remained much the same over the last ten years.
EEO legislation and affirmative action plans have raised awareness of
gender equity issues, but go only part of the way to making changes for
women in the world of work. The broader societal context has also to be
considered. The labour market in Australia has always been highly segmented,
with women's jobs almost by definition the lower paid ones. The segregation
of women into a narrow range of the work force has actually increased
since equal employment opportunity and affirmative action policies and
plans were introduced. Women still have unequal access to salary, superannuation
and permanency of employment.
While EEO legislation and affirmative action plans are not in themselves
enough to change substantially the lives of women, laws and policies which
are part of a total package of commitments to gender equity (addressing
issues such as access to education and training, salary, flexible working
conditions, health and child care, taxation and transport, equitable divorce
and welfare benefits) would assist both women and men in our society.
In the case of the Victorian Teaching Service, a decade of EEO affirmative
action plans, aimed at women teachers as individuals, has left organisational
structures basically unchanged. A more strategic and hard-hitting approach,
aimed at changing institutional structures and values, and perhaps even
including the imposition of quotas, appears to be required.
The focus of this paper is an assessment of the effectiveness of affirmative
action policies, using the Victorian Teaching Service between 1986 and 1992
as a case study. It was in this period (1986, 1989 and 1992), that Affirmative
Action Plans were introduced by the Victorian Ministry of Education. The
aim was to increase the number of women in senior administrative positions
and provide improved career opportunities in the Victorian Teaching Service.
Other goals were to identify and remove discriminatory practices and to
redress the impact of past discrimination. The Action Plan goals are detailed
in Appendix 2.
An original research study (1) was made of the policies, implementation
strategies, and effect of the three Action Plans of the Victorian Ministry
of Education. The gathering of statistical information was difficult because
of changes as to types and methods of information kept by the Ministry.
For example, data collected from 1991 onwards is tabulated and presented
differently from earlier data. At times gender specific information was
unavailable. The ongoing restructuring of the Teaching Service created
a greater and changed range of position classifications.
The field work carried out included interviews with members of the Consultative
Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity for Women in the Teaching Service,
and Senior Executives from the Personnel, Human Resources and Equal Employment
Opportunity management sectors with responsibility for the implementation
of the policies. Interviewees are not identified by name in this paper.
Archival material including minutes of meetings, discussion papers and
reports was drawn upon.
It is argued that the lessons from this case study can be extrapolated
to other government ministries, state and federal, and the private sector.
This paper begins with a definition of the terms used and an outline
of the Australian approach. It goes on to provide background on the Victorian
experience, outlines the thrust of its three Action Plans and attempts
to assess the results. Concluding that these have been disappointing,
the paper attempts to identify what more or what differently can be
done.
In America recently, affirmative action has come under attack as disadvantaging
the majority by providing preferential treatment based on race and gender.
(2) There, affirmative action has been implemented through the establishment
and implementation of quotas. Affirmative action in Australia has been introduced
as part of a legislative framework at both Federal and State levels, with
an emphasis on the establishment of targets rather than quotas, and on changes
to processes in recruitment and promotion.
Equal employment opportunity is a broad term covering strategies
to improve women's position in the labour market. (Like 'anti-discrimination'
it can also apply to other disadvantaged groups). The idea is to use proactive
measures to open up a greater range of jobs to women as a group, and to
ensure that women can compete on equal terms with men for promotion. Ziller's
definition of equal employment opportunity reflects its application in
Australia:
Equal Employment Opportunity refers to the right to be considered
for a job for which one is skilled and qualified. It is the chance to
compete with others and not be denied fair appraisal or excluded during
this process by laws, rules or attitudes. Equal employment opportunity
is the operation of the principle of recruitment and promotion on merit.
The test for equal employment opportunity is the outcome of selection
and promotion procedures. Only the successful passage of qualified women
and migrants through these procedures...is convincing evidence that equality
of opportunity in employment exists. (3)
Anti-discrimination legislation applies to individual cases and forbids
such actions as refusing to hire a woman for a job merely because of a
preference for men in such jobs. Action under such legislation is case
by case, and each case must be established retrospectively.
Anti-discrimination legislation is one means towards equal opportunity
and the principal means for achieving this goal is affirmative action.
This is defined in the federal government policy paper Affirmative
Action for Women as:
a systematic means, determined by the employer in consultation
with senior management, employees and unions, of achieving equal employment
opportunities (EEO) for women. Affirmative Action is compatible with appointment
and promotion on the basis of the principle of merit, skills and qualification.
(4)
Affirmative action is defined in the Victorian Ministry of Education
Action Plans for women in the Teaching Service as:
a systematic means, determined by the employer, in consultation
with unions of achieving equal employment opportunity. It is not positive
discrimination, is not an introduction of quota systems, but is part of
a total equal employment opportunity policy which enables the redress
of past discrimination whilst ensuring that all employees have equal access
to the promotional opportunities on the basis of merit, skills, and appropriate
qualifications. An affirmative action program is a planned, results oriented,
management program designed to achieve equal employment opportunity (5).
These definitions focus on merit. Equal employment opportunity (EEO)
is used as a term to describe the opening up of employment, education
and training to women with affirmative action as the means by which this
is to be achieved.
The Report, Halfway to Equal, by the House of Representatives
Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, (6) noted that
the federal Sex Discrimination Act 1984, and the related Affirmative
Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act 1986, have had
a significant impact on increasing equal opportunity and equal status
for women in Australia. It noted that while achievements for women have
been significant, there was still a long way to go. It noted also that
'At the time that the legislation was introduced, public knowledge of
and acceptance of gender discrimination was not widespread. Indeed the
passage of legislation was accompanied by a deal of cynicism and even
fear as to repercussions.' (7) This was also the Victorian experience.
The 'lack' of women in educational administration in Victoria has long been
documented and identified as a problem to be addressed. Schwarz's report,
Women in the Education Department of Victoria in 1984 (8), in which
the facts and figures were starkly presented, served as a catalyst.
Systemic and direct discrimination against women teachers in Victoria
meant that until 1956 upon marriage a woman teacher had to resign from
a permanent position, and if re-employed, work as a temporary teacher,
at a lower salary. Until 1970, in secondary and technical schools, women
teachers could be principals only of girls' schools, schools for the disabled
or one teacher schools. Until 1971, women teachers did not receive equal
pay. Until 1972, women teachers could not be principals of primary schools,
with the exception of schools for the disabled and one teacher schools.
(9)
Examples of indirect discrimination included no confinement leave until
1956. Until 1975, married women were unable to join the State Superannuation
fund. Until 1984, permanent parttime work was not available and when
introduced was available only for assistant class teachers. (10)
By 1986, the year of the first Affirmative Action Plan, women in the
Victorian Teaching Service had gained some advances towards equal employment
opportunity. Equal pay was won by 1971. From 1972, women could apply to
be principals of the full range of school types. Primary women teachers
were placed on a Common Roll (a listing by seniority in the primary teaching
service). From 1974, eighteen months unpaid confinement leave was available.
In conjunction with the teacher unions, working conditions were altered
to make superannuation conditions more equitable: married women were able
to become regular contributors and their partners no longer had to prove
dependency in order to inherit. Part time work was introduced. From 1985,
7 years' family leave became available to teachers, female and male. (11)
It could be argued, however, that these changes to women's working conditions
occurred parallel to, rather than as a result of, the Affirmative Action
Plan.
Administrative duties in schools traditionally and historically have
been, and continue to be, overwhelmingly carried out by men. Porter, Warry
and Apelt (12) refer to an Australian College of Education survey of the
Australian Teaching Service in 1989. There were at the time 20 per cent
more female teachers than male in Australian schools. However, 13.5 per
cent of men compared with 3.7 per cent of women held administrative posts.
In government schools there were slightly more men than women in the 41-50
age range. There were also more men employed on a permanent basis. There
was a bigger percentage of females teaching infants and primary school
children. In all other sectors males predominated. Career intentions showed
an almost equal number of males and females intended to apply for transfers
in the next three years. Twice as many men as women however intended to
apply for promotional transfers, and twice as many men attended training
courses related to administration. More women than men attended courses
on school curriculum subject matter and teaching processes, while more
men attended courses in areas such as school improvement and staff appraisal.
In Victorian school administration, the percentage of school administration
positions held by women has showed gentle fluctuations, but no steady
increases. In secondary schools, between 1971 and 1988, the percentage
of women principals declined from 18 to 9 per cent and in technical schools
rose from 8 to 14 per cent. (13) Women as a percentage of total principals
in post-primary schools rose from 11 per cent in 1989 to 16 per cent in
1994, while the proportion of women teachers in these schools remained
steady at about 48 per cent. Women as a percentage of principals in primary
schools declined from 28 percent in 1978 to 18 percent in 1994.
(% of classified positions)
---------------------------
Period Principals Teachers
---------------------------------------------
1978 28 69
1979 27 69
1980 24 69
1981 21 69
1982 21 69
1983 18 70
1984 PRIN A 12 72
1984 PRIN B 23 72
1984 PRIN 1 17 72
1985 16.6 72
1986 16.4 72
1987 15.3 72.5
1988 16.3 75.9
Jun-89 14.6 71.4
Jun-90 15.5 72.3
Jan-91 16.5 72
Jan-92 17.6 71
Feb-93 19.4 74
Mar-93 19.4 75
1994 18 75
---------------------------------------------
Source: EEO files, MOE. 1993; Workforce Planning, MOE, 1994
(% of classified positions)
---------------------------
Year Principals Teachers
---------------------------------
1971 20 *
1972 20 *
1973 18 46
1974 18 47
1975 16 47
1976 18 49
1977 16 50
1978 12 51
1979 12 52
1980 12 52
1981 12 52
1982 11 52
1983 11 52
1984 12 52
1985 10 56
1986 8 53
1987 9 51
1988 9 52
---------------------------------
* not available
Source: EEO files, Ministry of Education, 1993
(% of classified positions)
---------------------------
Period Principals Teachers
------------------------------------
1970 2 16
1971 8 13
1972 6 15
1973 8 15
1974 8 19
1975 9 18
1976 12 18
1978 3 21
1979 2 22
1980 2 23
1981 2 24
1982 2 24
1983 3 25
1984 6 28
1985 8.6 32
1986 9 28
Jun-87 10.7 30.5
1988 13.6 31.2
------------------------------------
Source: EEO files; Workforce Planning Unit, MOE, 1994.
(% of classified positions)
---------------------------
Period Principals Teachers
--------------------------------------
Jun-89 11.0 47.4
1990 11.8 48.2
Jan-91 12.2 47.0
Jan-92 13.9 47.3
Feb-93 14.5 49.1
1994 15.9 48.5
--------------------------------------
Source: EEO Files; Workforce Planning Unit, MOE, 1994.
In 1977, the Victorian Government passed an Equal Opportunity Act,
establishing an Equal Opportunity Board and making discrimination in employment
on the ground of gender illegal. Against the backdrop of the federal Sex
Discrimination Act 1984, and the national pilot program for the Affirmative
Action policy, the Victorian Government passed the Equal Opportunity
Act 1984, refining and extending the 1977 Act. (14)
Following the establishment of a Public Service Affirmative Action Plan,
the Victorian Director-General of Education, Dr. Norman Curry, in May
1985 formed a committee, the Consultative Committee on Equal Employment
Opportunity in the Teaching Service (CCEEOTS), to prepare an affirmative
action plan for the Teaching Service. The Committee comprised representatives
from the Education Ministry, regional administration, the Education Ministry
Equal Opportunity Unit, the Ministerial Advisory Committee on Women and
Girls, the Teacher Unions and school administrators. Three Action Plans
were developed and published in the following seven years.
The Victorian Ministry of Education's Affirmative Action policies and
plans were formulated and implemented with the expressed purpose of increasing
the number of women in leadership and management positions in the state
education sector, that is, in teaching, the senior executive service and
the public service of the Education Department of Victoria. Other goals
of the Action Plans were to identify and remove discriminatory practices
and to redress the impact of past discrimination - direct, indirect and
systemic. The Action Plans for Women in the Teaching Service were published
in 1986, 1989 and 1992.
The 1986 Action Plan aimed to increase the numbers of women in administrative
and promotion positions and in nontraditional female teaching positions,
and to make improvements to recruitment and selection, training and development,
career structures and opportunities and working conditions.
The first Affirmative Action (or EEO) Plan for the Victorian Teaching
Service was described as a systematic means, determined by the employer,
in consultation with the Unions, of achieving equal employment opportunity.
It was stressed that it was not positive discrimination, nor a quota system.
It was presented as a way of providing equal access to promotion on the
basis of merit, skills and appropriate qualifications. (15)
Senior Executive Service officers, regional and central, were to oversee
implementation of the Action Plan. Principals were responsible for school
level implementation. A range of committees, reporting mechanisms and
processes for budget bids were established. EEO consultants were to visit
schools and a state wide EEO network was to be established. All Ministry
policy committees were to include female representation.
Recruitment and vacancy positions were advertised as open to both men
and women. Teaching areas with low numbers of women were to be analysed,
and strategies developed to increase female representation. All selection
panels were to include a balance of men and women with appropriate training,
including in EEO awareness, interview techniques and report writing. Training
programs for women teachers in selection and promotion processes were
introduced. Women's awareness and understanding of assessment procedures
and promotion prerequisites were to be increased. Women were to be encouraged
to take part in school administration and organisation.
Administrative tasks assigned at school level and job profiles were
to be analysed. Gender bias was to be eliminated from forms. Proposals
to require the implementation of EEO policies in the Teaching Service
Act were to be developed. (16) Parttime work was to be introduced, an
analysis of working conditions was to be carried out, and leave provisions
and superannuation re-entry provisions were to be examined. Temporary
employment was to be examined to establish if there was discrimination
against women, and action taken to remove it should it be found to exist.
(17)
The 1986 Plan was a 'top down' policy initiated by senior personnel
and adapted by a representative committee of management and teacher union
personnel. Objectives, strategies for change, target groups, and persons
responsible were identified, target dates and performance measures were
set, and accountability was emphasised. An annual audit of the Action
Plan was to be carried out. The Plan was widely distributed. However,
the 'achievements' of its implementation have not been widely publicised.
The second Action Plan, for the years 1989-1991, also focussed on increasing
the number of women seeking and gaining promotion and 'allowance' positions
in teaching.
The major objective of the second Action Plan was to increase the number
of women in principal and promotion positions in schools, and in the School
Support Teaching Service (SSTS). 'The Ministry of Education has the goal
of achieving equal employment opportunity, that is, having women represented
at all levels of the system in proportion to their numbers in the Teaching
Service.' (18) To achieve this, specific affirmative action strategies
were to be used to encourage women to apply for assessment and promotion,
and discriminatory practices removed. Merit was still emphasised as the
key selection criterion for promotion and advancement. 'Acceptable behaviour'
was defined, with a new focus on improving personnel management throughout
the public service system. Targets defined as quantitative objectives,
voluntarily set by an employer as the minimum progress which could be
realistically made in a set time, were established. A specific percentage
was set of 40 per cent of promotion/allowance positions in schools, or
a number in proportion to the number of women in the school, whichever
was the greater. Targets were seen as 'guides or plans of action to remedy
discriminatory practices against a particular group', but not compulsory
requirements. (19)
The first Action Plan was referred to as the first phase of a continuing
process of policy development, monitoring and audit. (20) The second Plan
stated that:
The aim of the first Action Plan was the identification and
subsequent removal of discriminatory practices in teacher employment,
and the redress of the impact of past discrimination. The Plan was successful
in creating awareness of equal employment opportunity (EEO) issues in
the Teaching Service, and in gaining commitment to an affirmative action
program which would enable women teachers to have equal access to promotional
opportunities on the basis of merit, skills and appropriate qualifications.
(21)
The need for a more focused approach was stressed: '...the Action Plan
has identified a small number of action areas which give rise to specific
objectives and measurable outcomes.' (22) Statistical information on the
representation of women in administration positions in schools was provided:
In March 1987, 62 per cent of all teachers employed in the
Office of Schools Administration were women. The proportion of primary
teachers who were women was 75 per cent. Yet only 21 per cent of Principal
Class, Grade A positions and 12 per cent of Principal Class - Grade B
positions were held by women. At Band 1 level, the basic level representing
the vast majority of primary assistant teachers, women represented 86
per cent of staff.
The percentage of women secondary school teachers was 57 per cent,
yet only 8 per cent of principals and 14 per cent of Deputy Principals
were women. In technical schools, women made up 32 per cent of the Assistant
Class but held only 9 per cent of Principal and 17 per cent of Vice
Principal positions. (23)
These figures are representative of the trend throughout the 1980s:
no great heights, no deep troughs, and the number of women in administration
in education not as great as in the 1970s. The Plan referred to analysis
by the Appointments Board to show that women proportionately had a higher
success rate than men in gaining appointments to the Principal Class,
but far fewer women than men applied for promotion. Research findings
were then referred to, indicating that women were deterred from applying
for promotion because of not being encouraged to see themselves in leadership
roles, not being encouraged to apply for promotion and not being provided
with opportunities to gain administrative experience. Recognised as influential
factors were family commitments and lack of geographic mobility. 'Job
descriptions and selection processes which equate preferred leadership
styles with characteristic male patterns of behaviour further discriminate
against women, and lead selection panels to continue to assess merit in
a discriminatory way.' (24)
Second Action Plan strategies included providing women with the experience
of being on assessment panels, encouraging women to apply for promotion,
and to appeal, and establishment of regional networks of women teachers
for support, encouragement and career advice. (25)
The second Action Plan was less prescriptive than the first, focussing
more on quantitative goals. Again, although some of the goals were achieved,
and increased awareness of and participation by women did occur, the targets
set in the Plan were not reached.
The third Action Plan, for 1992-1994, also concentrated on increasing the
number of women seeking and gaining promotion positions. Groups not previously
referred to were included, including Kooris and people with disabilities.
Child care was a feature of this Plan, with a recognition of family responsibilities.
The Plan was launched shortly before the state election of 1992.
The third Plan highlighted as successes of the earlier Plans: the creation
of awareness of equal opportunity issues; the gaining of commitment to
affirmative action programs that enable women to have access to promotional
opportunities on the basis of merit; increasing the application and appointment
rates of women for principal class positions; and the trialing of innovative
programs such as the Eleanor Davis Memorial Project (a professional leadership
skills development program for women). It was recognised that change would
be slow, that the number of women in principal class positions remained
at an unacceptably low level, and that there was a need for continued
affirmative action strategies to address this.
What has been the impact and success of such plans? The goals and objectives,
whilst extensive, had as a key focus a numerical aim: the increase of women
in administrative positions. This aim was not achieved. Neither do targets
set for public accountability appear to have been met. Records required
to be kept and reported upon were generally absent from annual reports.
While objectives were listed, (26) implementation steps were not included,
and implementation of the Plans became intermittent and irregular.
Ten per cent of state professional development funding was supposed
to be allocated to EEO work, but difficulties occurred in obtaining this
funding. (27) While women were included on selection and assessment panels
as Ministry representatives, this usually took the form of a single woman
providing the 'gender balance' suggested in the Action Plans.
Advances from the first Action Plan were observable in the many excellent
programs for professional development, and persistent hard work by a number
of individuals. However there was a problem of a piecemeal and intermittent
approach from higher administrative levels. Equal Opportunity Units and
resource centres were established within each region, with consultants.
Some data collection and reporting was carried out. However, records from
regions were inconsistent, and in some cases, reports were not made. (28)
The number of female teachers in nontraditional areas, for example, was
not monitored in reports from the Ministry, despite expansion in this
area being an expressed objective. It was also not unusual for requests
to be made after the event, for example on gender breakdown of attendance
at professional development programs. (29)
Networking of women in education proceeded positively, with women organising
meetings and functions for their professional and personal support and
development. However these tended to be organised by committed individuals
within the system, rather than by committees or senior staff. In fact,
upon occasion, activities proceeded in the face of criticism and lack
of funding and support. (30)
The first Plan, it is claimed by its authors, and by senior administrators
interviewed, raised awareness and consciousness of equal employment opportunity
issues in the Teaching Service. However, there has also been backlash
and anger against the Plans. Many people reacted as if personally challenged
and threatened. Predictably, some men in the service objected to carrying
out the Plan. Some women also objected to the introduction of any special
provisions on their behalf: merit was a protective device, they should
make it on their own, and they were happy teaching in the classroom. The
Plans have occasioned debate, argument and dissension, with expressions
of refusal by some officers to carry out the policies or deliberate 'going
slow' in the implementation steps. Some adopted avoidance behaviour in
the hope that the policy would change or go away before they had to do
anything about it. Value systems of a deeply ingrained nature were clearly
being challenged with Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action.
(31)
At the senior teacher level of school administration, at middle management
position, trends have indicated that the proportion of women is increasing.
In the 1980s, the percentage of female senior teachers in technical schools
also steadily increased. With the creation of post-secondary schools, the
percentage of women holding senior teaching positions has also increased.
This has formed a potential pool of women for principal and vice principal
positions.
At the middle level of school management positions, the newly (1991)
created Advanced Skills Teacher Class also provided an opportunity for
women to gain promotion positions. The position was introduced in order
to provide promotion and increased salary for those demonstrating exemplary
classroom teaching practice and contribution to the working life of the
school. Ability to provide educational leadership in the development,
implementation and evaluation of a school's equal opportunity strategies
within Ministry policy guidelines on social justice was one of the criteria
to be met. By 1994 the percentages of women at the advanced Skills Teacher
level were, for post primary teachers, approximately 40 per cent, and
for primary teachers, up to 82 per cent.
There has been a pattern however that as the proportion of women in
school management positions shows any marked increase, the promotional
structure is changed. The representation of women in the Senior Teacher
position increased steadily between 1981 and 1989. The position was altered
to become the Advanced Skills Teacher position. Women were quick to advance
into this position, which has recently been replaced by the Professional
Recognition position. It is yet to be seen whether the pool of women at
the middle level of school leadership and administration go on to senior
levels.
One interviewee reflected on the predominance of women in teaching and
the impact of various changes:
In the primary division, there's this so called feminisation
of the teaching service so women are now 74 per cent of primary teachers
and men are 73 per cent of principals, in the principal class and in the
early 1970's in the primary division, women were 40 per cent of the principal
class and this included women who'd teach at very small schools and as
we know in the late '70's and early '80's many schools were consolidated
which is the same as amalgamation and women lost out, because the attitude
was that they wouldn't be able to do the job. It was as simple as that.
It's interesting that when the common roll was first introduced women
were 40 per cent of the principal class, as I said, and that was because
most women had to have extra qualifications to even get to principal class
which men didn't have to do and that of course made them higher up, because
men then got to very senior positions with only two years' qualification
or else those men were inspectors or higher up. The women never got into
those positions of inspector or higher up and as those women died or retired,
the statistics got lower and lower and, oh well, the figure, the percentage
of women principals got lower and lower and now I think it's round 26
per cent or something and that's how much it's been for the last few years.'......
(32)
Affirmative action policies and programs may be criticised as having shortcomings
particularly in relation to long term, systemic change. It could be argued
that such policies fit into a liberal feminist framework for change. Middleton
purported that:
Liberal feminists investigate the discrimination of career
structures and practices and policies and encourage women into management
positions and areas of employment non traditional to women. A more equitable
distribution of the sexes in the current social formation is an end in
itself. (33)
Yates (34) made the point that those putting efforts into increasing
the proportion of women in higher positions could be called limited reformers,
concerned with changing the shares of the cake, but leaving the unsatisfactory
nature of the cake untouched. The local selection of principals was supported
as a move towards more democratic education and against bureaucratic hierarchies
which in the past had worked against women. However, because of 'democratic'
local committees, with rarely more than a token woman and because of ingrained
cultural assumptions about what authority and dynamic personality looks
like, fewer rather than more women were chosen. 'This is a concern because
it is indicative of an ongoing culture of schooling whose assumptions
about women's and men's roles and rights have failed to be changed.' (35)
Yates put forward the view that promotion of different approaches to the
curriculum and pedagogy in the interests of girls and women is in competition
with the many other changes currently occurring in education and the broader
society, that EEO positions were disappearing and opportunities for promotion
dwindling with ambitious men fighting harder than ever for them, and that
there was a backlash developing against affirmative action. (36)
In discussing the Action Plans, one senior executive commented that the
Plans were like a sandwich without the filling: that there was a lack of
commitment. What, it was asked, does it take to convince male colleagues
that there is a case? (37)
Senior executives in interview identified as challenges:
- the need to get the men in the system to recognise that there is a
real need for equality for men and women in the system,
- to get women to apply for and get into jobs, and see themselves as
being leaders, and
- the cultural reality that some women see themselves as getting to
a certain level and going no further. (38)
The identification of potential leaders was regarded as important as was
developing individual plans to get women into management positions within
a certain period of time. Mentoring was stressed by another interviewee.
Flexibility in leave, parttime work and formal facilitation of networks
were also put forward as areas for further research and development. (39)
Supplementary lists of potential appointees were suggested to encourage
women to apply for specific positions. Dedicated resources were also identified,
with staff to implement and monitor the Action Plans.
Since 1992, the Action Plans have been replaced by 'Employment Equity
Management Guidelines for Schools' published in March, 1994. This is a
non consultative, centralised model establishing policies to be carried
out at a local level. Each school is to develop an employment equity management
policy as part of the staff management section of the School Charter.
The School Charter is a statement of a school's policies and procedures
developed through the School Council, a copy of which is meant to be lodged
with the central education bureaucracy. Mechanisms for monitoring and
evaluation are not clear.
Women teachers, it was suggested, could be encouraged to apply for senior
positions in the school, given information about and access to professional
development programs to build knowledge, skills, and confidence to apply
for these. Women could also be encouraged to apply for positions in subject
areas in which they were under represented, for example, mathematics,
science, technology and computer studies. Requests for Education Ministry
representatives on selection panels are to be bought to the attention
of women teachers. Networks are to be established to provide support,
encouragement and career advice. Assistance is to be provide to women
returning from family leave.
The subordinate status of women can be related to the control that each
sex has over the resources valued by society, with men in a stronger position.
(40) The then Prime Minister, the Honourable R.J.L. Hawke, in a preface
to the 1984 Affirmative Action Green Paper, referred to women taking their
place in improved positions in the work force, and taking their place in
society. (41) There was a recognition of wasted talents and work power,
as justification for special policies to place women in administrative positions
and for additional training. This argument lost some of its force in a time
of economic recession, high youth unemployment and high male unemployment.
The Senior Executive Service in the Victorian Ministry of Education experienced
an 'influx' of women in the 1980s; in reality a modest increase of fifteen
from zero. By the early 1990s this number had been whittled down and has
still not been attained again. (42)
Equal employment opportunity legislation and affirmative action plans go
part of the way to make some changes for women in society and the world
of work. Such policies are however vulnerable to the vagaries of economics
and, at times of economic depression, restraints and growing conservatism
politically, the trend has been for cutbacks to equal opportunity units,
staff and programs.
For change to occur, strategies have to be utilised which do more than
add a few women into the existing power and organisational structures.
Real changes in power relationships between the sexes require fundamental
changes in areas such as the home and family. Programs aimed at individual,
rather than institutional change, are however more acceptable to organisational
management, which doesn't feel threatened for example by short term workshops
attended infrequently by limited groups of individuals. Costs to support
these programs are minor. This is the type of model upon which the affirmative
action plans appear to be based. However individual remedial efforts have
very limited benefits if the organisations stay unchanged and newly acquired
behaviours experience resistance because of the lack of 'fit' with established
interaction patterns in the work situation. Individual models can become
a 'blame the victim' approach, whilst ignoring the external influences
that create these individual characteristics.
While some changes to generally accepted tenets of work design and organisation
can be viewed as acceptable, legitimate and feasible, to bring about structural
change to an organisation such as a government department is difficult.
Programs such as improvement of selection mechanisms and performance evaluation
are acceptable to most organisations, because existing values of work
organisations are not challenged. More direct efforts to alter the gender
composition of the work force have, however, been strongly opposed. Affirmative
action is already seen by some as being against ideologies of individual
merit and seniority as the basis for reward.
Reforms such as flexible work schedules and child care are more acceptable,
and would also alter the organisational structure. The expansion of sex
role definitions and de-emphasis of sex-typed behaviours and occupations
are examples of longer term interventions. Work with school administrators
on management styles and methods of operation is also necessary. Women
may value different characteristics and concentrate on a different set
of criteria than men in the supervisory process, and even when trained
in a similar approach to supervision, males and females may still bring
in gender-based expectations and behaviours. (43)
The focus in the Victorian Teaching Service has been on individual women
to succeed in terms of male defined criteria of merit. In schools very little
has changed. One interviewee described the situation:
I mean when you're in the central administration too, I've
found I tend to get carried away with the concept of having developed
a policy and it's over to schools to implement it isn't it. They had to
do it, so what's the problem? And then you get out and realise at the
schools and find that they have 523 ways of avoiding doing it.
I think that what I observed was that very little had changed. I mean
it was as though all that work had been done for nought, it hadn't hit
the schools in any real sense... I think the only way we're going to
change things for women, to change men in fact, I don't think you can
move one end of this jigsaw without moving the other. (44)
Since 1992, the Action Plans have been replaced by 'Employment Equity
Management Guidelines for Schools' (published in March, 1994). Each school
is to develop an employment equity management policy as part of the staff
management section of the School Charter. The School Charter is a statement
of a school's policies and procedures developed through the School Council,
a copy of which is meant to be lodged with the central education bureaucracy.
Mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation are not clear.
To be successful any affirmative action plan must move beyond a focus
on individual training and endeavour within (or despite) an organisational
structure which can be antagonistic, or inconsistent in application of
policy, and where monitoring and evaluation have, up to now, been patchy
and data difficult to obtain. Whilst advances in some areas have been
made in this past decade, women are certainly not in a position of having
equal access to the full range of positions available within the education
system.
In looking at the 'problems' faced by women in the workplace, the broader
societal, structural context has to be considered:
Equal Employment Opportunity is no longer enough, as it has
been minimally effective in some areas, and it has mainly helped already
relatively privileged women. There is a better understanding now of the
nexus between family, household, labour market and state and more recognition
of the specificity and variety of women's experiences. (45)
Segal (46) in writing of equal employment in England, made a comment
valid for the Victorian and Australian experience, and that is that 'the
legislation which was supposed to improve women's economic situation has
had a limited impact'. Women's jobs, Segal states, are by definition low
paid ones. 'The segregation of women into a narrow range of the worst
paid jobs has actually increased since these reforms were passed.' (47)
Affirmative Action policies similarly have not achieved their stated goals.
Women still have differential access to salary, superannuation, permanency
of employment and to additional allowances for administrative positions.
The 1977 Report to the Premier of Victoria, The Victorian Committee
on Equal Opportunity in Schools, (48) stated a belief still pertinent,
that it was 'important to view equal opportunity as not merely the possibility
of women achieving in the male dominated and defined promotion sphere,
but rather as the possibility of women making an impact on the whole structure
and definition of a profession in which they, after all, comprise the
majority.' Women who do obtain administrative and leadership positions
and operate as isolated individuals can find they are treated as 'solos'
or tokens situations counterproductive for the individual and for other
women.
The Action Plans drew attention to the situation of women in the education
system, highlighting their under-representation in administrative levels.
Women began to be encouraged to apply for promotion. The importance of
female role models was emphasised. A 'climate' of change was introduced.
Removing artificial and arbitrary barriers to employment in order to provide
employment widens the field to allow classes of people previously excluded
to compete for jobs, but there is no guarantee or likelihood that the
competition will result in participation at promotion levels proportionate
to the number of women in the profession. It is thought that 'hard'
that is stronger affirmative action programs giving preference to women
may be necessary to achieve proportional representation at all levels.
The example of the Australian Labor Party's policy of specific quotas
for preselection of parliamentary candidates to have more women in parliament
by the year 2002 has been widely cited.
Policies and legislation are not enough in themselves to change substantially
the lives and opportunities of women. Women are not the power brokers
in our society. However, laws and policies which are part of a total package
of societal reform (covering issues such as access to education and training,
employment, salary, flexible working conditions, health and child care,
taxation and transport, equitable divorce and welfare benefits), would
assist both women and men.
Constantly there are reminders that change is slow and patience required;
the need for education, cooperation and goodwill continues. The decade
has been very much one of one step forward, two steps back.
- Malloch, M. A study of the Implementation and Effect of the Action
Plans for Women in the Victorian State Teaching Service, 1982-1992.
Melbourne, Monash University, February 1995.
- Roberts, S. with Thornton, J., Gest, T., Cooper, M., Bennesfield,
R., Hetter, K., Seter, J., Minerbrook, S. and Tharp, M. 'Affirmative
Action On The Edge'. U.S. News and World Report. February 13, 1995:
p.32.
- Ziller, A. Affirmative Action Handbook. Sydney: Review of NSW Government
Administration. 1980: p.13.
- Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Affirmative Action for
Women. A Policy Discussion Paper. Canberra: Australian Government Printing
Service, 1984: Vol. 1, p.3.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Schools Division. Action Plan for
Women in the Teaching Service. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1986.
- House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional
Affairs, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. Halfway to Equal:
Report of the Inquiry into Equal Opportunity and Equal Status of Women
in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service, 1992:
p.XLV.
- ibid.
- Schwarz, V. Women in the Education Department of Victoria. Melbourne:
Policy and Planning Unit, Education Department Victoria, 1984.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Schools Division. Action Plan for
Women in the Teaching Service. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1986.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- Porter, P, Warry, M, Apelt, L. The Genderised Profession of Teaching:
Visible Women and Invisible Issues. (Unpublished paper). Queensland
University Press, 1992: pp.8-12.
- The onset of this decrease was first identified in Sampson, S.N. 'Women
and Men in the Teaching Service.' Equal Opportunity Forum. 12. March
1983: pp.11-13.
- Larmour, C. Sex Discrimination Legislation in Australia. (Research
Paper No. 19). Canberra: Department of the Parliamentary Library, 1993.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Schools Division. Action Plan for
Women in the Teaching Service. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1993.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Office of Schools Administration.
Action Plan for Women in the Teaching Service 1989-1991. Melbourne:
Statewide School Support and Production Centre, 1989: p.8.
- ibid.
- ibid. p.1.
- ibid. p.8.
- ibid. p.5.
- ibid. p.5.
- ibid. p.5.
- ibid. p.9-13.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria. Annual Report. Melbourne: Government
Printer, various, 1986-1994.
- Ministry of Education meetings, 1987-1992.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Equal Employment Opportunity Branch.
Archives. Boxes 11, 12, 13 and 15.
- Ministry of Education meetings, 1986-1992.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- Malloch, M. Interviews with senior administrators and CCEEO members,
Ministry of Education, Victoria, 1986-1993.
- Middleton, S. 'The sociology of women's education as a field of academic
study.' in Arnot, M. and Weiner, G. (eds). Gender and the Politics of
Schooling. The Open University, London: The Academic Division of Unwin
Hyman Ltd. 1987: p.78.
- Yates, L. Some Dimensions of the Practice of Theory for Practice in
Relation to Gender and Education. Unpublished paper presented to the
Conference on Gender Issues in Educational Administration and Policy.
Geelong: Deakin University, 1987.
- ibid. p.9.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- ibid.
- Nieva, V.F. 'Equality for Women at Work: Models of Change' in Gutek,
B.A. Sex Role Stereotyping and Affirmative Action Policy. Los Angeles
California: Institute of Industrial Relations. University of California:
1982: pp.81-125.
Nieva argued that men may be perceived as controlling a wide array of
resources valued by society - power, money, land, political influence,
legal power, intellectual and occupational resources, and women controlling
a greatly limited set sexuality, youth, beauty and the promise of
paternity.
- Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Affirmative Action for
Women. A Policy Discussion Paper. Canberra: Australian Government Printing
Service, Vol. 1, 1984.
- Ministry of Education, Victoria, Workforce Planning Unit. Workforce
Statistics. 1990-1994, and personal communication with the author.
- ibid.
- Malloch, M. Interviews with senior administrators and CCEEOTS members,
Ministry of Education, Victoria, 1986-1993.
- Pettman, J. Living in the Margins. Racism, Sexism and Feminism in
Australia. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1992: p.151.
- Segal, L. Is the Future Female? Troubled Thoughts on Contemporary
Feminism. London: Virago Press Ltd. 1987: p.43.
- ibid. p.43.
- The Victorian Committee on Equal Opportunity in Schools Report, 1977.
Victorian Government, 1977: p.100.
- AA
- Affirmative Action
- AST
- Advanced Skills Teacher
- CCEEOTS
- Consultative Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity in the Teaching
Service
- EEO
- Equal Employment Opportunity
- EO
- Equal Opportunity
- MOE
- Ministry of Education
- PT 4
- Primary Teacher, Level 4
- SRP
- Special Responsibility Position
(% in classified positions)
---------------------------
Classified Year Secondary Technical
position
------------------------------------------------------
Principal
---------
1981 11.8 2.3
1982 10.7 1.6
1983 10.3 3.1
1984 12.0 6.0
1985 10.3 8.6
1986 7.8 9.7
1987 8.4 9.7
1988 9.9 12.8
Vice Principal
--------------
1981 16.9 16.2
1982 15.2 15.5
1983 13.4 15.4
1984 12.0 15.0
1985 11.4 16.8
1986 13.0 17.4
1987 14.8 17.8
1988 18.1 20.0
Senior Teacher
--------------
1981 22.7 10.8
1982 24.0 12.0
1983 24.3 12.6
1984 25.0 13.0
1985 23.8 15.2
1986 24.7 17.0
1987 25.0 17.6
1988 25.5 19.0
Assistant with responsibility
-----------------------------
1981 33.3 9.5
1982 33.6 8.9
1983 33.5 8.5
1984 34.0 8.0
1985 35.1 8.1
1986 36.1 8.3
1987 36.0 11.0
1988 36.1 14.2
Assistant
---------
1981 57.7 26.9
1982 24.0 27.1
1983 28.0 22.6
1984 59.0 28.0
1985 35.1 31.4
1986 59.0 30.9
1987 59.8 32.3
1988 61.1 34.0
Total
-----
1981 51.1 23.7
1982 51.7 24.1
1983 52.2 24.7
1984 52.0 25.0
1985 52.9 28.0
1986 53.4 28.9
1987 58.1 35.6
1988 54.6 31.1
------------------------------------------------------
Source: Computer Services, Ministry of Education.
(% in classified positions)
---------------------------
Class Year Proportion women
------------------------------------------
Principal
---------
1989 11.0
1990 11.8
1991 11.8
1992 13.9
1993 14.5
1994 15.9
Vice Principal
--------------
1989 18.4
1990 20.3
1991 20.1
1992 22.0
1993 25.6
1994 25.5
Senior Teacher/Advanced Skills Teacher
--------------------------------------
1989 22.0
1990 21.9
1991 21.9
1992 37.6
1993 40.8
1994 42.2
Assistant
---------
1989 57.9
1990 58.8
1991 58.5
1992 58.8
1993 56.7
1994 61.0
Total
-----
1989 46.7
1990 48.2
1991 47.8
1992 47.3
1993 48.9
1994 48.5
------------------------------------------
Source: Analysis of Teaching Service Personnel Employed,
Computer Services and Workforce Studies Unit, MOE.
NOTE. Classifications for secondary assistant class teachers were
altered from 14 to 16 subdivisions in 1991. Ministry tables
showing the number of staff per classification were listed for
each sub-division level in the assistant class. The Assistant
with Responsibility Allowance was replaced by Coordinator and
Special Responsibility Positions.
(% in classified positions)
---------------------------
Year Principal Band 4 Band 3 Band 2 Band 1 Total
classified
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1983 18.2 18.4 34.3 61.8 83.1 70.3
1984 17.0 18.2 35.8 62.5 83.9 71.9
1985 16.6 18.0 37.3 63.6 84.4 71.6
1986 16.5 17.6 39.8 65.3 85.1 72.3
1987 16.3 17.9 41.3 66.1 86.0 73.4
1988 15.0 21.2 45.4 (a)28.0 87.7 74.9
1989 15.2 24.3 23.7 44.4 87.0 71.4
1990 15.5 25.6 46.5 69.1 82.8 71.7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Band 2 head teachers only - total class information not available.
Source: Computer Services, MOE.
(% of classified positions)
---------------------------
Year Principal Vice- PT 4 Head AST SRP Teaching Total
principal teacher classification classified
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1991 19.5 26.4 * 28.7 49.9 70.2 86.1 72.4
1992 17.7 42.9 23.5 30.3 70.4 71.9 87.9 73.0
1993 19.2 40.9 23.8 29.9 74.5 71.9 88.7 74.2
1994 18.6 40.0 23.8 29.9 82.2 63.5 89.7 75.1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* This classification was introduced in 1992.
Source: Computer Services, MOE.
The Affirmative Action Plan is seen as a result - oriented management program
involving:
- commitment of senior management
- full consultation with the union
- analysis of the current position of women
- review of all employment practices to ensure they do not directly
or indirectly discriminate against women
- develop programs to respond to collected data, and
- monitor and audit equal employment opportunities.
The aim of increasing the numbers of women in educational administration
and non teaching areas to be achieved by implementation of the objectives:
- Awareness, commitment and implementation
To develop awareness of, and commitment to, the need for and the
implementation of the Action Plan for Women in the Teaching Service.
- Recruitment, selection and promotion
To ensure that fields for the recruitment into the Teaching Service
contain representative numbers of eligible women.
To ensure that selection and promotion processes within the Teaching
Service are not gender biased.
The overall objective is to increase the numbers of women in administrative
and promotion positions and in non traditional female teaching areas.
- Training and development
To ensure that eligible women have access to training places, that
specialised training needs of women are recognised and that training
courses conducted within the Teaching Service are free from discrimination
and contain relevant EEO material where appropriate.
- Career structures and opportunities
To ensure that career structures and opportunities are designed
in such a way that they do not disadvantage women and that women are
encouraged to develop their careers.
- Working conditions
To improve working conditions for all staff members, paying
particular attention to the working conditions of women. (Ministry
of Education, 1986).
The first area designated was an increase in the number of women:
- seeking and gaining assessment for promotion positions;
- gaining appointment to promotion/allowance positions both in schools
and in the SSTS. (Ministry of Education, 1989).
The target was specific: the number of women holding promotion/allowance
positions in each school/workplace to be in proportion to the number of
female staff, or women to hold 40 per cent of promotion/allowance positions
in the school/workplace, whichever is greater. The target group was women
teachers in schools and the School Support Teaching Service not in the
principal class.
Representation of women in Principal Class positions in both schools
and the School Support Teaching Service (SSTS) was to be increased. The
targets were: '(a) the number of women occupying Principal positions in
primary and post-primary schools and in the SSTS will be at least doubled
by the end of 1991; and (b) in post-primary schools which have more than
one leadership, i.e. Principal Class positions, at least one position
to be filled by a woman.' Task allocation for women in schools and the
SSTS, the provision of appropriate professional development to enable
women to gain the skills and self confidence necessary to advance their
careers, and education of assessment and selection panels in differences
between male and female modes of presentation and leadership styles to
overcome any biases in selection procedures were to be analysed. (Ministry
of Education, 1989).
The important principles to be observed included:
- recruitment on the basis of ability,
- knowledge and skills in open competition,
- promotion and advancement on the basis of efficiency in open competition,
- all officers to be treated equally without regard to political affiliation,
race, colour, religion, national origin, sex, marital status or physical
disability,
- equal pay for work of equal value,
- employees to be used efficiently and effectively,
- employees to receive effective education and training,
- and to be protected against arbitrary treatment. (Office of Merit
Protection, 1984).
The aims were to increase the number of women seeking and gaining promotion
and allowance positions in the teaching service, increasing the number of
women on committees and selection panels, increasing the number of primary
women teachers gaining assessment, providing women teachers with administrative
experience, providing training, including EEO responsibilities for panels,
providing professional development and establishing networks to assist all
women in gaining promotion. Merit based selection was emphasised.
The other major objective was for equal opportunity and equal treatment
for teachers with family responsibilities. Child care was to be provided
during working hours and for professional development outside of working
hours, providing child care to increase women's participation in the democratic
decision making processes.
Apple, M. W. Teachers and Texts: a Political Economy of Class and Gender
Relations in Education. New York and London: Routledge, 1988.
Department of School Education. Action Plan for Women in the Teaching
Service 1992-1994. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1992.
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Affirmative Action
for Women. A Policy Discussion Paper, Vol. 1. Canberra: Australian
Government Printing Service, May 1984.
Enders Dragasser, U. Women and Education: A European Survey.
(Unpublished paper). Monash University Gippsland, 1994.
House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional
Affairs, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. Halfway to Equal.
Report of the Inquiry into Equal Opportunity and Equal Status of Women
in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service, 1992.
Klein, S.S.(ed.). Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity through Education.
Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1985.
Larmour, C. Sex Discrimination Legislation in Australia. (Research
Paper No. 19). Canberra: Department of the Parliamentary Library, 1993.
Lucas, E. A. 'State Feminism: Norwegian Women and the Welfare State.'
Feminist Issues. 10. 1, 1990.
Malloch, M. 'One Step Forward: Two Steps Back. A Decade of Decay or
Advancement'. Conference Paper. Australian Association for Research in
Education. Geelong: Deakin University, 1992.
Malloch, M. 'Women in Education in the State of Victoria' in S. Walker
and L. Barton (eds). Politics and the Processes of Schooling.
Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1992.
Malloch, M. A Study of the Implementation and Effect of the Action
Plans for Women in the Victorian State Teaching Service, 1982-1992.
(Unpublished thesis). Melbourne: Monash University, 1995.
Middleton, S. 'The sociology of women's education as a field of academic
study.' in M. Arnot and G. Weiner (eds). Gender and the Politics of
Schooling. The Open University, London: The Academic Division of
Unwin Hyman Ltd. 1987.
Milligan, S. with Ashenden, D. and Quin, R. Women in the Teaching
Profession. (National Board of Employment, Education and Training.
Commissioned Report No.32). Canberra: AGPS, 1994.
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Appointments Board. Occasional
Report. various, 1986-1990. (In-house publication).
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Equal Employment Opportunity Branch.
Archives. Boxes 11,13 and 15.
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Office of Schools Administration. Action
Plan or Women in the Teaching Service, 1989-1991. Melbourne: Statewide
School Support and Production Centre, 1989.
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Schools Division, Policy and Planning
Unit. Women in the Ministry of Education (Schools Division) in Victoria
1987. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1987.
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Schools Division. Action Plan for
Women in the Teaching Service. Melbourne: Government Printer, 1986.
Ministry of Education, Victoria, Workforce Planning Unit. Workforce
Statistics. 1990-1994.
Ministry of Education, Victoria. Appointments Board Report.
various, 1986-1989. (In-house publication).
Ministry of Education, Victoria. Education News. March 31,
1994.
Ministry of Education. Victoria. Annual Report. various, 1986-1994.
Melbourne: Government Printer.
Nieva, V.F. 'Equality for Women at Work: Models of Change' in B.A. Gutek,
Sex Role Stereotyping and Affirmative Action Policy. Los Angeles,
California: Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California,
1982.
Office of Merit Protection. Annual Report. Canberra, 1984.
Pettman, J. Living in the Margins. Racism, Sexism and Feminism in
Australia. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1992.
Porter, P., Warry, M., Apelt, L. The Genderised Profession of Teaching:
Visible Women and Invisible Issues. (Unpublished paper). Queensland
University Press, 1992.
Roberts, Steven V. with Thornton, Jeannie, Gest, Ted, Cooper, Matthew,
Bennesfield, Robin M., Hetter, Katia, Seter, Jennifer, Minerbrook, Scott
and Tharp, Mike.. 'Affirmative Action On The Edge'. U.S. News and
World Report, February 13, 1995.
Sampson, S.N. Women Teachers and Promotions: A Search for Some Explanation.
(Research Paper). Melbourne: Monash University, 1985.
Sawer, M. Sisters in Suits. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin Pty.
Ltd, 1990.
Schwarz, V. Women in the Education Department of Victoria.
Melbourne: Policy and Planning Unit, Education Department, Victoria, 1984.
Segal, L. Is the Future Female? Troubled Thoughts on Contemporary
Feminism. London: Virago Press Ltd., 1987.
Shakeshaft, C. 'Gender and Supervision'. Presentation at the European
Council Conference Equal Advances in Educational Management.
Vienna, 1990.
The Victorian Committee on Equal Opportunity in Schools Report,
1977. Victorian Government, 1977.
Yates, L. 'Some Dimensions of the Practice of Theory for Practice in
Relation to Gender and Education'. Paper presented to the Conference on
Gender Issues in Educational Administration and Policy. Geelong: Deakin
University, 1987.
Ziller, A. Affirmative Action Handbook. Sydney: Review of NSW
Government Administration, 1980.
Acknowledgments
This is to acknowledge the help given in producing this paper from Adrienne
Millbank, Consie Larmour, Geoff Winter, Greg McIntosh, Mary Lindsay, Robyn
Seth-Purdie, Singnary Outhay and Jane Chapman of the Social Policy Group.
Comments to: web.library@aph.gov.au
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19 July, 2004
by the Parliamentary Library Web Manager
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